ConfrontingDeathFromDrugSelf-Intoxication(DDSI): PreventionThroughaBetterDefinition

Suicide and other selfdirected violence deaths are likely grossly underestimated, reflecting inappropriate classification of many drug intoxication deaths as accidents or unintentional and heterogeneous ascertainment and coding practices across states. As the tide of prescription and illicit drug-poisoning deaths is rising, public health and research needs would be better satisfied by considering most of these deaths a result of self-intoxication. Epidemiologists and prevention scientists could design better intervention strategies by focusing on premorbid behavior. We propose incorporating deaths from drug selfintoxication and investigations of all poisoning deaths

[1]  D. Gunnell,et al.  Factors influencing coroners' verdicts: an analysis of verdicts given in 12 coroners' districts to researcher-defined suicides in England in 2005. , 2015, Journal of public health.

[2]  Caleb Wiedeman,et al.  High-risk use by patients prescribed opioids for pain and its role in overdose deaths. , 2014, JAMA internal medicine.

[3]  N. Kapusta,et al.  Beyond suicide: action needed to improve self-injury mortality accounting. , 2014, JAMA psychiatry.

[4]  Melonie P. Heron Deaths: leading causes for 2010. , 2013, National vital statistics reports : from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System.

[5]  Melanie-Angela Neuilly,et al.  Putting the Public Back in Public Health , 2013 .

[6]  T. Noguchi,et al.  Evolution of the Psychological Autopsy: Fifty Years of Experience at the Los Angeles County Chief Medical Examiner‐Coroner's Office , 2013, Journal of forensic sciences.

[7]  Kurt B. Nolte,et al.  State Variation in Certifying Manner of Death and Drugs Involved in Drug Intoxication Deaths , 2013 .

[8]  J. Klugman,et al.  The Role of Medicolegal Systems in Producing Geographic Variation in Suicide Rates , 2013 .

[9]  K. Malone,et al.  Attempted suicide v. non-suicidal self-injury: behaviour, syndrome or diagnosis? , 2013, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[10]  K. Hawton,et al.  Non-suicidal self-injury v. attempted suicide: new diagnosis or false dichotomy? , 2013, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[11]  D. Gunnell,et al.  Time trends in coroners' use of different verdicts for possible suicides and their impact on officially reported incidence of suicide in England: 1990–2005 , 2012, Psychological Medicine.

[12]  Ted R Miller,et al.  Leading causes of unintentional and intentional injury mortality: United States, 2000-2009. , 2012, American journal of public health.

[13]  B. Mcfarland,et al.  Rates and correlates of undetermined deaths among African Americans: results from the National Violent Death Reporting System. , 2012, Suicide & life-threatening behavior.

[14]  Ulrich Hegerl,et al.  Validity of suicide statistics in Europe in relation to undetermined deaths: developing the 2-20 benchmark , 2011, Injury Prevention.

[15]  D. Leo DSM-V and the Future of Suicidology , 2011 .

[16]  N. Dasgupta,et al.  Obtaining adequate data to determine causes of opioid-related overdose deaths. , 2011, Pain medicine.

[17]  G. Adkins,et al.  Communicating with the Coroner: How Religion, Culture, and Family Concerns May Influence Autopsy Decision Making , 2011, Death studies.

[18]  R. Walker,et al.  Suicide and unintentional poisoning mortality trends in the United States, 1987-2006: two unrelated phenomena? , 2010, BMC public health.

[19]  M. Ilgen,et al.  Unintentional overdose and suicide among substance users: a review of overlap and risk factors. , 2010, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[20]  Johan Duflou,et al.  Comparative Toxicology of Intentional and Accidental Heroin Overdose* , 2010, Journal of forensic sciences.

[21]  Danuta Wasserman,et al.  Massive increase in injury deaths of undetermined intent in ex-USSR Baltic and Slavic countries: Hidden suicides? , 2010, Scandinavian journal of public health.

[22]  R. Walker,et al.  Race/ethnicity and potential suicide misclassification: window on a minority suicide paradox? , 2010, BMC psychiatry.

[23]  Meelee Kim,et al.  Usefulness of prescription monitoring programs for surveillance—analysis of Schedule II opioid prescription data in Massachusetts, 1996–2006 , 2010, Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety.

[24]  Franci Crepeau-Hobson The Psychological Autopsy and Determination of Child Suicides: A Survey of Medical Examiners , 2010, Archives of suicide research : official journal of the International Academy for Suicide Research.

[25]  M. Shapiro,et al.  Does intent matter? The medical and societal burden of self-inflicted injury. , 2009, The Journal of trauma.

[26]  A. Lindgren,et al.  Number of addictive substances used related to increased risk of unnatural death: A combined medico-legal and case-record study , 2009, BMC psychiatry.

[27]  S. Stack,et al.  Discrepant comorbidity between minority and white suicides: a national multiple cause-of-death analysis , 2009, BMC psychiatry.

[28]  C. Pritchard,et al.  An analysis of suicide and undetermined deaths in 17 predominantly Islamic countries contrasted with the UK , 2006, Psychological Medicine.

[29]  M. Breiding,et al.  Variability of undetermined manner of death classification in the US , 2006, Injury Prevention.

[30]  K. Hempstead Manner of death and circumstances in fatal poisonings: evidence from New Jersey , 2006, Injury Prevention.

[31]  I. Rockett,et al.  The black-white suicide paradox: possible effects of misclassification. , 2006, Social science & medicine.

[32]  Diego De Leo,et al.  Critical issues in psychological autopsy studies. , 2006, Suicide & life-threatening behavior.

[33]  L. Fullerton-Gleason,et al.  Classifying undetermined poisoning deaths , 2006, Injury Prevention.

[34]  K. Sadkowsky,et al.  Medical disorders of suicides in Australia: analysis using a multiple-cause-of-death approach. , 2005, Social science & medicine.

[35]  S. Timmermans Suicide Determination and the Professional Authority of Medical Examiners , 2005 .

[36]  I Barry Pless,et al.  Injury prevention: a glossary of terms , 2005, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health.

[37]  H. Wilcox,et al.  Association of alcohol and drug use disorders and completed suicide: an empirical review of cohort studies. , 2004, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[38]  Gustavo Turecki,et al.  Psychiatric diagnoses in 3275 suicides: a meta-analysis , 2004, BMC psychiatry.

[39]  M. Sharpe,et al.  Psychological autopsy studies of suicide: a systematic review , 2003, Psychological Medicine.

[40]  Arthur Kleinman,et al.  Reducing Suicide: A National Imperative , 2002 .

[41]  P. Lindqvist,et al.  Suicide classification--clues and their use. a study of 122 cases of suicide and undetermined manner of death. , 2002, Forensic science international.

[42]  D. de Leo,et al.  Misclassification of Suicide – The Contribution of Opiates , 2001, Psychopathology.

[43]  V. Jeffrey,et al.  Accident or Suicide? Predictors of Coroners' Decisions in Suicide and Accident Verdicts , 2001, Medicine, science, and the law.

[44]  I. Rockett Injury and violence: a public health perspective , 1998, Population bulletin.

[45]  J. Lonnqvist,et al.  Suicides hidden among undetermined deaths , 1998, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[46]  R. Hanzlick,et al.  Medical examiner and coroner systems: history and trends. , 1998, JAMA.

[47]  E. C. Harris,et al.  Suicide as an outcome for mental disorders , 1997, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[48]  R Hanzlick,et al.  The relevance of queries and coding procedures to the writing of cause-of-death statements. , 1996, The American journal of forensic medicine and pathology.

[49]  P. Duberstein,et al.  Relationships of age and axis I diagnoses in victims of completed suicide: a psychological autopsy study. , 1996, The American journal of psychiatry.

[50]  E. Salib Predictors of Coroner's Verdict: A Logistic Regression Model , 1996, Medicine, science, and the law.

[51]  D. Shai,et al.  Problems of accuracy in official statistics on drug-related deaths. , 1994, The International journal of the addictions.

[52]  P. Allebeck,et al.  Causes of death in a cohort of 50 465 young men – Validity of recorded suicide as underlying cause of death , 1991, Scandinavian journal of social medicine.

[53]  J. Butt,et al.  Medical examiners and manner of death. , 1991, Suicide & life-threatening behavior.

[54]  P. O'Carroll A consideration of the validity and reliability of suicide mortality data. , 1989, Suicide & life-threatening behavior.

[55]  D H Mills,et al.  Operational criteria for the determination of suicide. , 1988, Journal of forensic sciences.

[56]  N. Kreitman,et al.  Social construction or causal ascription: Distinguishing suicide from undetermined deaths , 1988, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[57]  M. Monk,et al.  Problems in suicide statistics for whites and blacks. , 1978, American journal of public health.

[58]  B. Barraclough Poisoning Cases: Suicide or Accident , 1974, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[59]  I. Ovenstone A Psychiatric Approach to the Diagnosis of Suicide and its Effect upon the Edinburgh Statistics , 1973, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[60]  W. Haddon The changing approach to the epidemiology, prevention, and amelioration of trauma: the transition to approaches etiologically rather than descriptively based. , 1968, American journal of public health and the nation's health.

[61]  K. Hawton,et al.  Suicide and deliberate self-harm in Oxford University students over a 30-year period , 2010, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[62]  P. Yip,et al.  Assessing the impact of suicide exclusion periods on life insurance. , 2010, Crisis.

[63]  D. Leo,et al.  Definitions of suicidal behavior: lessons learned from the WHo/EURO multicentre Study. , 2006, Crisis.