A smart eye-tracking feedback scaffolding approach to improving students' learning self-efficacy and performance in a C programming course

Abstract While computer science is crucial to today's world, the course requirements remain high and learners' self-efficacy remains low. This study applied eye-tracking devices to instantly identify learners' difficulties and provide them with tips and help them enhance their self-efficacy. The influence of the eye-tracking scaffolding system on students' self-efficacy and performance for learning the C programming language was investigated. Seventy-seven senior high school participants were randomly assigned to four groups: control, peer-scaffolding, eye-tracking-scaffolding, and mixed-scaffolding. A self-efficacy scale, a learning test, and an open-ended questionnaire were the research instruments. The results show that the self-efficacy of the eye-tracking-scaffolding group was significantly higher than the other three groups. In addition, the self-efficacy of the peer-scaffolding group was significantly higher than the control and mixed-scaffolding groups. However, no significant differences were found in learning performance between groups. The findings suggest that eye-tracking scaffolding and peer scaffolding methods can be applied to learning the C programming language, as they significantly enhanced learners' self-efficacy. Furthermore, the results suggest that several simultaneous types of scaffolding tend to reduce the effectiveness of the scaffolding systems through media-multitasking. Therefore, future teaching practice and research should avoid applying several types of scaffolding simultaneously.

[1]  R. L. Ebel,et al.  Essentials of educational measurement , 1972 .

[2]  Bassey Isong,et al.  A Methodology for Teaching Computer Programming: first year students’ perspective , 2014 .

[3]  Ana I. Molina,et al.  Evaluating multimedia learning materials in primary education using eye tracking , 2018, Comput. Stand. Interfaces.

[4]  Susan Wiedenbeck,et al.  Factors affecting course outcomes in introductory programming , 2004, PPIG.

[5]  Eamonn Murphy,et al.  Programming Anxiety Amongst Computing Students—A Key in the Retention Debate? , 2009, IEEE Transactions on Education.

[6]  Christopher Watson,et al.  A systematic review of approaches for teaching introductory programming and their influence on success , 2014, ICER '14.

[7]  Daniela Lange,et al.  Positive experience, self-efficacy, and action control predict physical activity changes: a moderated mediation analysis. , 2013, British journal of health psychology.

[8]  K. Rayner.  Eye Guidance in Reading: Fixation Locations within Words , 1979, Perception.

[9]  M. Volman,et al.  Scaffolding in Teacher–Student Interaction: A Decade of Research , 2010 .

[10]  Petek Askar,et al.  AN INVESTIGATION OF FACTORS RELATED TO SELF-EFFICACY FOR JAVA PROGRAMMING AMONG ENGINEERING STUDENTS , 2009 .

[11]  Susan Wiedenbeck,et al.  Self-efficacy and mental models in learning to program , 2004, ITiCSE '04.

[12]  Richard Dewhurst,et al.  Using eye-tracking to trace a cognitive process: Gaze behavior during decision making in a natural environment , 2013 .

[13]  Julián Moreno,et al.  Digital Competition Game to Improve Programming Skills , 2012, J. Educ. Technol. Soc..

[14]  Anna S. Law,et al.  Learning approach and its relationship to type of media use and frequency of media-multitasking , 2019 .

[15]  Diane Horton,et al.  Drop, Fail, Pass, Continue: Persistence in CS1 and Beyond in Traditional and Inverted Delivery , 2015, SIGCSE.

[16]  R. W. Rodieck.  The First Steps in Seeing , 1998 .

[17]  Annemarie S. Palincsar,et al.  Social constructivist perspectives on teaching and learning. , 1998, Annual review of psychology.

[18]  P. Pintrich,et al.  Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. , 1990 .

[19]  Maria Kordaki,et al.  A drawing and multi-representational computer environment for beginners' learning of programming using C: Design and pilot formative evaluation , 2010, Comput. Educ..

[20]  Carole A. Ames.  Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. , 1992 .

[21]  J. Bruner,et al.  The role of tutoring in problem solving. , 1976, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[22]  R. Krauzlis.  The Control of Voluntary Eye Movements: New Perspectives , 2005, The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

[23]  Päivi Aarreniemi-Jokipelto,et al.  A Strategy to Increase Students’ Motivation and Decrease Dropout Rates on Computer Programming Courses in a Public Institute of Education and Technology , 2015 .

[24]  Kirsti Ala-Mutka,et al.  A study of the difficulties of novice programmers , 2005, ITiCSE '05.

[25]  A. Chickering,et al.  Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education , 1987, CORE.

[26]  Gary E. Raney,et al.  An eye movement study of insight problem solving , 2001, Memory & cognition.

[27]  M. G. Jones,et al.  SCIENCE TEACHERS' CONCEPTUAL GROWTH WITHIN VYGOTSKY'S ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT , 1998 .

[28]  P. W. Kerr,et al.  Eye movement control during reading: I. The location of initial eye fixations on words , 1987, Vision Research.

[29]  Daniel Zingaro.  Peer instruction contributes to self-efficacy in CS1 , 2014, SIGCSE '14.

[30]  A. Bandura.  Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. , 1977, Psychological review.

[31]  Dale H. Schunk,et al.  Social cognitive theory. , 2012 .

[32]  A. Bandura.  The Explanatory and Predictive Scope of Self-Efficacy Theory , 1986 .

[33]  Erman Yükseltürk,et al.  An investigation of the effects of programming with Scratch on the preservice IT teachers' self-efficacy perceptions and attitudes towards computer programming , 2017, Br. J. Educ. Technol..