Residual stresses in thermoplastic composites - a study of the literature. Part III: Effects of thermal residual stresses

Abstract This paper is the third part in a series of review papers on residual stresses in thermoplastic composites. The first two parts were dedicated to the formation of thermal residual stresses and experimental techniques to detect these stresses, respectively. This third paper discusses the effects that thermal residual stresses have on the material properties of thermoplastic composites. Composite laminates as well as composite structures were considered. Residual stresses were found to affect the composites’ matrix-dominated, mechanical and durability properties, as well as to inflict damage and dimensional instability. Several mechanisms to relieve thermal residual stresses are proposed.

[1]  J. Ganley,et al.  Explaining Spring-In in Filament Wound Carbon Fiber/Epoxy Composites , 2000 .

[2]  Tsutomu Takeichi,et al.  Studies on thermal and mechanical properties of polyimide-clay nanocomposites , 2001 .

[3]  A. Vautrin,et al.  On the maximum curvatures of 0/90 plates under thermal stress , 2005 .

[4]  L. Ye,et al.  Interlaminar fracture of commingled-fabric-based GF/PET composites , 1993 .

[5]  Z. Hashin.  Thermal expansion coefficients of cracked laminates , 1988 .

[6]  Experimental Study of Viscoelastic Effects and Aging on Elevated Temperature Damage and Failure in Polymer Composites , 2003 .

[7]  R. Adams,et al.  The effect of temperature on the dynamic characteristics of heat-resistant thermoplastic composites , 1996 .

[8]  Noboru Kikuchi,et al.  Numerical analysis and optimal design of composite thermoforming process , 1999 .

[9]  M. Pandey.  Effect of Fiber Waviness on Buckling Strength of Composite Plates , 1999 .

[10]  J. Hansen,et al.  The Effect of Cooling Rate and Annealing on Residual Stress Development in Graphite Fibre Reinforced PEEK Laminates , 1993 .

[11]  John A. Nairn,et al.  Matrix solidification and the resulting residual thermal stresses in composites , 1985 .

[12]  G. Hartwig,et al.  Parameters influencing the thermal expansion of polymers and fibre composites , 1998 .

[13]  Y. Jack Weitsman,et al.  Effects of Fluids on Polymeric Composites—A Review , 2000 .

[14]  Brandon Arritt,et al.  Thermo-Micromechanics of Microcracking in a Cryogenic Pressure Vessel , 2003 .

[15]  Richard Schapery,et al.  Prediction of compressive strength and kink bands in composites using a work potential , 1995 .

[16]  John A. Nairn,et al.  The initiation and growth of delaminations induced by matrix microcracks in laminated composites , 1992 .

[17]  J. Hansen,et al.  The Effect of Cooling Rate on Free-Edge Stress Development in Semi-Crystalline Thermoplastic Laminates , 1998 .

[18]  G. Pritchard.  Reinforced Plastics Durability , 1999 .

[19]  Laurent Warnet,et al.  Thermally-Induced Shapes of Unsymmetric Laminates , 1996 .

[20]  C. Galiotis,et al.  In situ monitoring of the fibre strain distribution in carbon-fibre thermoplastic composites1. Application of a tensile stress field , 1999 .

[21]  M. Grayson,et al.  The Effect of Hygrothermal Aging on the Microcracking Properties of of Some Carbon Fiber/Polyimide Laminates , 1995 .

[22]  Kuang-Ting Hsiao,et al.  A study of direct cure kinetics characterization during liquid composite molding , 2006 .

[23]  J. Gillespie,et al.  Process induced stress for woven fabric thick section composite structures , 2000 .

[24]  M. Zhang,et al.  The dependence of the fracture toughness of thermoplastic composite laminates on interfacial interaction , 2000 .

[25]  John A. Nairn,et al.  Hygrothermal Aging of Polyimide Matrix Composite Laminates , 2003 .

[26]  J. Seferis,et al.  Cure temperature effects on cryogenic microcracking of polymeric composite materials , 2003 .

[27]  Long-term behaviour of PEI and PEI-based composites subjected to physical aging , 1999 .

[28]  Roberts Joffe,et al.  Analytical modeling of stiffness reduction in symmetric and balanced laminates due to cracks in 90° layers , 1999 .

[29]  J. Morton,et al.  A Plane-Strain Finite Element Model for Process-Induced Residual Stresses in a Graphite/PEEK Composite , 1997 .

[30]  S. Hsu,et al.  Positive‐working aqueous base developable photosensitive polybenzoxazole precursor/organoclay nanocomposites , 2005 .

[31]  G. Jeronimidis,et al.  Residual Stresses in Carbon Fibre-Thermoplastic Matrix Laminates , 1988 .

[32]  J. Seferis,et al.  Nanoclay reinforcement effects on the cryogenic microcracking of carbon fiber/epoxy composites , 2002 .

[33]  T. Moon,et al.  The effects of Mandrel material and tow tension on defects and compressive strength of hoop-wound, on-line consolidated, composite rings , 2002 .

[34]  Ryszard Pyrz,et al.  THE EFFECT OF COOLING RATE ON THERMAL RESIDUAL STRAINS IN CARBON/POLYPROPYLENE MICROCOMPOSITES , 1998 .

[35]  John A. Nairn,et al.  SOME NEW VARIATIONAL MECHANICS RESULTS ON COMPOSITE MICROCRACKING , 1995 .

[36]  J. Hansen,et al.  Development of free-edge effect during processing of semicrystalline thermoplastic composites , 1994 .

[37]  T. Shimokawa,et al.  Effect of Thermal Cycling on Microcracking and Strength Degradation of High-Temperature Polymer Composite Materials for Use in Next-Generation SST Structures , 2002 .

[38]  William D. Callister,et al.  Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction , 1985 .

[39]  J. Nairn,et al.  The Development of Residual Thermal Stresses in Amorphous and Semicrystalline Thermoplastic Matrix Composites , 1987 .

[40]  N. L. Hancox,et al.  Overview of effects of temperature and environment on performance of polymer matrix composite properties , 1998 .

[41]  Ramesh Talreja,et al.  Damage mechanics of composite materials , 1994 .

[42]  George Z. Voyiadjis,et al.  Damage in composite materials , 1993 .

[43]  F. R. Jones.  4 – The effects of aggressive environments on long-term behaviour , 2003 .

[44]  R. Young,et al.  Introduction to Polymers , 1983 .

[45]  A. Abedian,et al.  Influence of the free surface on the thermal stresses in unidirectional composites , 1997 .

[46]  L. Berglund,et al.  11 – Fatigue of thermoplastic composites , 2003 .

[47]  Ya-Jun Guo,et al.  A correlation between fluid-induced damage and anomalous fluid sorption in polymeric composites , 2002 .

[48]  A.S.D. Wang,et al.  Edge Effects on Thermally Induced Stresses in Composite Laminates , 1977 .

[49]  N. Sottos,et al.  Thermally Induced Interfacial Microcracking in Polymer Matrix Composites , 1993 .

[50]  Peter W. R. Beaumont,et al.  The measurement and prediction of residual stresses in carbon-fibre/polymer composites , 1997 .

[51]  D. Dillard,et al.  Environmental aging of high-performance polymeric composites: Effects on durability , 1995 .

[52]  L. Brinson.  2.10 – Viscoelasticity and Aging of Polymer Matrix Composites , 2000 .

[53]  John A. Nairn,et al.  2.12 – Matrix Microcracking in Composites , 2000 .

[54]  R. Weiss,et al.  Strain‐induced crystallization behavior of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) , 1988 .

[55]  Wilfried Becker,et al.  Comparison of models for transverse ply cracks in composite laminates , 2000 .

[56]  J. Mandell,et al.  Solvent stress cracking and failure mechanisms in polyetherimide composites , 1990 .

[57]  A. Lou,et al.  Evaluation of test methods in the determination of in‐plane shear modulus of poly(phenylene sulfide) matrix composites , 1994 .

[58]  H. Hahn,et al.  The Effect of Cooling Rate on Residual Stress in a Thermoplastic Composite , 1989 .

[59]  Jorn S. Hansen,et al.  A Method to Predict the Effect of Thermal Residual Stresses on the Free-Edge Delamination Behavior of Fibre Reinforced Composite Laminates , 1998 .

[60]  Hugh McManus,et al.  Thermally induced damage in composite laminates: Predictive methodology and experimental investigation , 1996 .

[61]  N. Hancox.  Thermal effects on polymer matrix composites: Part 1. Thermal cycling , 1998 .

[62]  J. Nairn.  Fracture Mechanics of Composites With Residual Thermal Stresses , 1997 .

[63]  D. Chung,et al.  Thermal stress-induced thermoplastic composite debonding, studied by contact electrical resistance measurement , 2000 .

[64]  Optimal Cool Down in Nonlinear Thermoviscoelasticity With Application to Graphite/Peek (APC-2) Laminates , 1994 .

[65]  Zhansheng Guo,et al.  Temperature field of thick thermoset composite laminates during cure process , 2005 .

[66]  N. J. Pagano,et al.  Free Edge Stress Fields in Composite Laminates. , 1978 .

[67]  Bryan Harris,et al.  Fatigue in composites , 2003 .

[68]  B. Hsiao,et al.  Transcrystalline Interphase in Advanced Polymer Composites , 1990 .

[69]  B. Hsiao,et al.  The effects of transcrystalline interphase in advanced polymer composites , 1992 .

[70]  S. Thomas.  On the Use of Accelerated Test Methods for Screening High Temperature Polymeric Composite Materials , 1999 .

[71]  L. Brinson,et al.  Effects of physical aging on long term creep of polymers and polymer matrix composites , 1995 .

[72]  L. Cai,et al.  Non-Fickian Moisture Diffusion in Polymeric Composites , 1994 .

[73]  W. E. Lawrence,et al.  Thermal and morphological skin-core effects in processing of thermoplastic composites , 1990 .

[74]  Sebastiaan Wijskamp,et al.  Shape distortions in composites forming , 2005 .

[75]  C. Sun,et al.  Experimental Characterization of Constitutive Models for PEEK Thermoplastic Composite at Heating Stage during Forming , 1997 .

[76]  L. Govaert,et al.  Multi-Scale Analysis of Mechanical Properties of Amorphous Polymer Systems , 2003 .

[77]  M. Zhang,et al.  Long-range effects of carbon fiber on crystallization of semicrystalline thermoplastics , 2000 .

[78]  J. E. Bailey,et al.  Constrained cracking in glass fibre-reinforced epoxy cross-ply laminates , 1978 .

[79]  Numerical Analysis of Deep Drawing Process for Thermoplastic Composite Laminates , 1997 .

[80]  Analyses of mode I edge delamination by thermal stresses in multilayer systems , 2006 .

[81]  D.D.L. Chung,et al.  Continuous carbon fiber polymer-matrix composites and their joints, studied by electrical measurements , 2001 .

[82]  L. McCartney,et al.  PREDICTING TRANSVERSE CRACK FORMATION IN CROSS-PLY LAMINATES 1 This article represents the author's , 1998 .

[83]  A. Tounsi,et al.  A New Computational Method for Prediction of Transient Hygroscopic Stresses during Moisture Desorption in Laminated Composite Plates with Different Degrees of Anisotropy , 2005 .

[84]  Xiaogang Huang,et al.  Matrix Cracking of High-Performance Composite Laminates with Variation of Laminate Stacking Sequence and Testing Temperature , 1997 .

[85]  N. Zahlan,et al.  Design and fabrication of composite components; the spring-forward phenomenon , 1989 .

[86]  J. Nairn.  Thermoelastic analysis of residual stresses in unidirectional, high‐performance composites , 1985 .

[87]  J. Gillespie,et al.  Effect of temperature on the transverse cracking behavior of cross-ply composite laminates , 1997 .

[88]  P. A. Smith.  2.04 – Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics—Properties , 2000 .

[89]  J. A. Barnes,et al.  The formation of residual stresses in laminated thermoplastic composites , 1994 .

[90]  G. Karami,et al.  Micromechanical study of thermoelastic behavior of composites with periodic fiber waviness , 2005 .

[91]  R. Schledjewski,et al.  Influence of process parameters on residual stress in thermoplastic filament-wound parts , 2004 .

[92]  Roberts Joffe,et al.  Effects of fibre coating (size) on properties of glass fibre/vinyl ester composites , 1999 .

[93]  B. Walther.  An Investigation of the Tensile Strength and Stiffness of Unidirectional Polymer-Matrix, Carbon-Fiber Composites under the Influence of Elevated Temperatures , 1998 .

[94]  S. K. Panda,et al.  The influence of ply sequence and thermoelastic stress field on asymmetric delamination crack growth behavior of embedded elliptical delaminations in laminated FRP composites , 2006 .

[95]  Yiu-Wing Mai,et al.  Spring-in study of the aileron rib manufactured from advanced thermoplastic composite , 1998 .

[96]  Michael R Wisnom,et al.  Fibre Waviness Generation and Measurement and Its Effect on Compressive Strength , 2000 .

[97]  L. McCartney.  Physically based damage models for laminated composites , 2003 .

[98]  Kenneth Reifsnider,et al.  Stiffness-reduction mechanisms in composite laminates , 1982 .

[99]  Adriaan Beukers,et al.  Residual stresses in thermoplastic composites—A study of the literature—Part I: Formation of residual stresses , 2006 .

[100]  John W. Gillespie,et al.  Process-Induced Stress and Deformation in Thick-Section Thermoset Composite Laminates , 1992 .

[101]  John A. Nairn,et al.  The Strain Energy Release Rate of Composite Microcracking: A Variational Approach , 1989 .

[102]  Mechanical response of linear viscoelastic composite laminates incorporating non-isothermal physical aging effects , 1999 .

[103]  B. Harris.  Engineering composite materials , 1986 .

[104]  R. Adams,et al.  Low temperature transitions in fibre reinforced polymers , 2001 .

[105]  F. Trochu,et al.  Multi-criteria thermal optimization in liquid composite molding to reduce processing stresses and cycle time , 2006 .

[106]  J. Myoung,et al.  Effect of thermal misfit stress on crack deflection at planar interfaces in layered systems , 2006 .

[107]  P. Mitschang,et al.  Thermal Residual Stress Simulation in Thermoplastic Filament Winding Process , 2003 .

[108]  John Morton,et al.  The impact resistance of composite materials — a review , 1991 .

[109]  D.D.L. Chung,et al.  Interlaminar damage in carbon fiber polymer-matrix composites, studied by electrical resistance measurement , 2001 .

[110]  W. Cantwell,et al.  The Influence of Cooling Rate on the Fracture Properties of a Thermoplastic-Based Fibre-Metal Laminate , 2002 .

[111]  Sérgio Frascino Müller de Almeida,et al.  Natural frequencies of composite plates with tailored thermal residual-stresses , 1999 .

[112]  K. Cowley,et al.  Modelling problems of damage at notches and the fracture stress of carbon-fibre/polymer composites: Matrix, temperature and residual stress effects , 1997 .

[113]  Tess J. Moon,et al.  Identification of the Most Significant Processing Parameters on the Development of Fiber Waviness in Thin Laminates , 2002 .

[114]  J. Gillespie,et al.  Moisture effects on the behavior of graphite/polyimide composites , 1996 .

[115]  Ramesh Talreja,et al.  Fatigue damage mechanisms in unidirectional carbon-fibre-reinforced plastics , 1999 .

[116]  Wesley J. Cantwell,et al.  The effect of cooling rate on deformation and fracture in IM6/PEEK composites , 1990 .

[117]  Jan-Anders E. Månson,et al.  Numerical Analysis of the Dimensional Stability of Thermoplastic Composites Using a Thermoviscoelastic Approach , 2002 .

[118]  Harald E.N. Bersee,et al.  Residual stresses in thermoplastic composites—A study of the literature—Part II: Experimental techniques , 2007 .

[119]  Michael W. Hyer,et al.  Some Observations on the Cured Shape of Thin Unsymmetric Laminates , 1981 .

[120]  Werner Hufenbach,et al.  Analysis and optimisation of multistable composites under residual stresses , 2002 .

[121]  P. Davies,et al.  Characterization of residual stresses in wound composite tubes , 2006 .

[122]  Ki-Young Kim,et al.  Interlaminar fracture toughness of CF/PEI composites at elevated temperatures: roles of matrix toughness and fibre/matrix adhesion , 2004 .

[123]  B. Åström,et al.  Modelling of residual stresses in compression moulded glass-mat reinforced thermoplastics , 2000 .

[124]  John A. Nairn,et al.  Energy release rate analysis for adhesive and laminate double cantilever beam specimens emphasizing the effect of residual stresses , 2000 .

[125]  T. G. Rogers,et al.  Mathematical analysis of the springback effect in laminated thermoplastic channel sections , 1991 .

[126]  L. McCartney.  Energy-based prediction of progressive ply cracking and strength of general symmetric laminates using an homogenisation method , 2005 .

[127]  John A. Nairn,et al.  ANALYTICAL FRACTURE MECHANICS ANALYSIS OF THE PULL-OUT TEST INCLUDING THE EFFECTS OF FRICTION AND THERMAL STRESSES , 2000 .

[128]  J. Gillespie,et al.  The Influence of Residual Stresses on Mode I Interlaminar Fracture of Thermoplastic Composites , 1993 .

[129]  S. White,et al.  Continuous Curing and Induced Thermal Stresses of a Thick Filament Wound Composite Cylinder , 2001 .

[130]  I. Ward,et al.  The incorporation of carbon nanofibres to enhance the properties of self reinforced, single polymer composites , 2005 .

[131]  S. Khatri,et al.  Thick-section AS4-graphite/E-glass/PPS hybrid composites: Part I. Tensile behavior , 1996 .

[132]  Donald R Paul,et al.  Thermal expansion behavior of nylon 6 nanocomposites , 2002 .

[133]  H. Hahn,et al.  Effect of Curing Stresses on the First Ply-failure in Composite Laminates , 1979 .

[134]  L. Brinson,et al.  A Damage Evolution Model for Viscoelastic Composite Laminates , 2001 .

[135]  J. Nairn.  RESIDUAL STRESS EFFECTS IN FRACTURE OF COMPOSITES AND ADHESIVES , 2004 .

[136]  J. Månson,et al.  Process Simulated Laminate (PSL) : A Methodology to Internal Stress Characterization in Advanced Composite Materials , 1992 .

[137]  Impact damage resistance and tolerance of high-performance polymeric composites subjected to environmental aging , 1996 .

[138]  F. Ellyin,et al.  Evolution and influence of residual stresses/strains of fiber reinforced laminates , 2004 .

[139]  F. Jones.  3 – Durability of reinforced plastics in liquid environments , 1999 .

[140]  Y. Mai,et al.  Engineered interfaces in fiber reinforced composites , 1998 .

[141]  Christopher T. Key,et al.  Constituent based analysis of composite materials subjected to fire conditions , 2006 .

[142]  Y. Weitsman,et al.  A mechanics model for the compressive response of fiber reinforced composites , 1994 .

[143]  C. Sun,et al.  Thermoelastic Behavior of PEEK Thermoplastic Composite during Cooling from Forming Temperatures , 1997 .

[144]  N. Pagano,et al.  Stress fields and energy release rates in cross-ply laminates , 1998 .

[145]  H.E.N. Bersee,et al.  Nanocomposite matrix for increased fibre composite strength , 2005 .

[146]  A. Loos,et al.  Processing of Composites , 2000 .

[147]  J. Nairn.  Transverse Fracture in Unidirectional Graphite/Polysulfone Composites , 1987 .

[148]  Wayne W. Stinchcomb,et al.  Effects of moisture, residual thermal curing stresses, and mechanical load on the damage development in quasi-isotropic laminates , 1982 .

[149]  J. Z. Wang,et al.  An Evaluation of Chemical Aging/Oxidation in High Performance Composites Using the Vickers Micro-Indentation Technique , 1996 .

[150]  G. D. Sims,et al.  2.05 – Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics—Properties , 2000 .

[151]  Paul M. Weaver,et al.  A concept for the generation of out-of-plane distortion from tailored FRP laminates , 2004 .

[152]  M. Topçu,et al.  Thermal Residual Stresses in Simply Supported Thermoplastic Laminated Plates under a Parabolic Temperature Distribution , 2006 .

[153]  S. Fréour,et al.  Analytical modeling of transient hygro-elastic stress concentration : Application to embedded optical fiber in a non-uniform transient strain field , 2006 .

[154]  K. Bowles,et al.  Use of unbalanced laminates as a screening method for microcracking , 1990 .

[155]  J. Månson,et al.  A thermoviscoelastic analysis of process-induced internal stresses in thermoplastic matrix composites , 2001 .

[156]  Ralf Schledjewski,et al.  Effects of Tape Tension on Residual Stress in Thermoplastic Composite Filament Winding , 2005 .

[157]  Leif A. Carlsson,et al.  Thermoplastic composite materials , 1991 .

[158]  Anuvat Sirivat,et al.  Preparation, structure, properties and thermal behavior of rigid-rod polyimide/montmorillonite nanocomposites , 2001 .

[159]  Véronique Michaud,et al.  Thermoviscoelastic anisotropic analysis of process induced residual stresses and dimensional stability in real polymer matrix composite components , 2006 .

[160]  Johanne Denault,et al.  Thermoformed glass fiber reinforced polypropylene: Microstructure, mechanical properties and residual stresses , 1998 .

[161]  Susan C. Mantell,et al.  Manufacturing Process Models for Thermoplastic Composites , 1992 .

[162]  K. Wei,et al.  Thermally and Mechanically Enhanced Clay/Polyimide Nanocomposite via Reactive Organoclay , 1999 .

[163]  Kenneth Reifsnider,et al.  An Investigation of Cumulative Damage Development in Quasi-Isotropic Graphite/Epoxy Laminates , 1982 .

[164]  Y. J. Weitsman,et al.  Anomalous fluid sorption in polymeric composites and its relation to fluid-induced damage , 2006 .

[165]  T. O'brien,et al.  Fatigue Delamination Behavior of PEEK Thermoplastic Composite Laminates , 1988 .

[166]  A. Nielsen,et al.  A Raman study into the effect of transcrystallisation on thermal stresses in embedded single fibres , 2003 .

[167]  A. Vautrin,et al.  Analytical Calculation of the Transient Thermoelastic Stresses in Thick Walled Composite Pipes , 2004 .