An experimental study of software agent negotiations with humans

Electronic negotiations allow participants to negotiate online and use analytical support tools in making their decisions. Software agents offer the possibility of automating negotiation process using these tools. This paper aims at investigating the prospects of agent-to-human negotiations using experiments with human subjects. Various types of agents have been configured using the following tactics: individualistic, neutral, yielding, yielding-then-individualistic, and absolute tit-for-tat. These agents were paired up with human counterparts for negotiating product sale. A set of hypotheses has been proposed involving the performance of agents, as well as humans in terms of objective, as well as subjective measures. Overall, the findings speak in favor of agent-managed negotiations. An experiment in software agent - human negotiations is described.Agents employed different negotiation tactics.The negotiation case involving purchase of a computer was used.Subjects were university students.Overall, software agents outperformed human negotiators.

[1]  Sarit Kraus,et al.  Negotiating with bounded rational agents in environments with incomplete information using an automated agent , 2008, Artif. Intell..

[2]  Kim,et al.  Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement , 1986 .

[3]  Pattie Maes,et al.  Kasbah: An Agent Marketplace for Buying and Selling Goods , 1996, PAAM.

[4]  Gregory E. Kersten,et al.  Agent-supported negotiations in the e-marketplace , 2005, Int. J. Electron. Bus..

[5]  Nicholas R. Jennings,et al.  Using similarity criteria to make issue trade-offs in automated negotiations , 2002, Artif. Intell..

[6]  Michael Wooldridge,et al.  A Classification Scheme for Negotiation in Electronic Commerce , 2001 .

[7]  Gregory E. Kersten,et al.  Decision station: situating decision support systems , 2004, Decis. Support Syst..

[8]  Michael Filzmoser,et al.  Automated vs. Human Negotiation , 2010 .

[9]  Sarit Kraus,et al.  Can automated agents proficiently negotiate with humans? , 2010, CACM.

[10]  Dirk Neumann,et al.  Shaman: Software and Human Agents in Multiattribute Auctions and Negotiations , 2006, Negotiation, Auctions, and Market Engineering.

[11]  L. Weingart,et al.  Unilateral concessions from the other party: concession behavior, attributions, and negotiation judgments. , 2004, The Journal of applied psychology.

[12]  Sarit Kraus,et al.  Supporting the Design of General Automated Negotiators , 2010 .

[13]  Dirk Neumann,et al.  On Comparison of Mechanisms of Economic and Social Exchanges: The Times Model , 2006, Negotiation, Auctions, and Market Engineering.

[14]  Melvin F. Shakun,et al.  Multi-bilateral Multi-issue E-negotiation in E-commerce with a Tit-for-Tat Computer Agent , 2005 .

[15]  Bartel Van de Walle,et al.  Coping with one-to-many multi-criteria negotiations in electronic markets , 2001, 12th International Workshop on Database and Expert Systems Applications.

[16]  Pattie Maes,et al.  Agents that buy and sell , 1999, CACM.

[17]  D. DavisFred,et al.  User Acceptance of Computer Technology , 1989 .

[18]  Gregory E. Kersten,et al.  Predicting opponent's moves in electronic negotiations using neural networks , 2008, Expert Syst. Appl..

[19]  Minjie Zhang,et al.  A single issue negotiation model for agents bargaining in dynamic electronic markets , 2014, Decis. Support Syst..

[20]  Nicholas R. Jennings,et al.  On Agent-Mediated Electronic Commerce , 2003, IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng..

[21]  H. Raiffa.  The art and science of negotiation , 1983 .

[22]  Nicholas R. Jennings,et al.  Managing commitments in multiple concurrent negotiations , 2005, Electron. Commer. Res. Appl..

[23]  Dirk Neumann,et al.  Situated Decision Support for Managing Service Level Agreement Negotiations , 2008, Proceedings of the 41st Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS 2008).

[24]  Ya'akov Gal,et al.  A cultural sensitive agent for human-computer negotiation , 2012, AAMAS.

[25]  Dale Goodhue,et al.  Task-Technology Fit and Individual Performance , 1995, MIS Q..

[26]  Pao-Long Chang,et al.  Evaluations of Tactics for Automated Negotiations , 2008 .

[27]  Arlette van Wissen,et al.  Human-agent teamwork in dynamic environments , 2012, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[28]  Pattie Maes,et al.  Agent-mediated Electronic Commerce : A Survey , 1998 .

[29]  Gregory E. Kersten,et al.  WWW-based negotiation support: design, implementation, and use , 1999, Decis. Support Syst..

[30]  Jonathan Gratch,et al.  The effect of expression of anger and happiness in computer agents on negotiations with humans , 2011, AAMAS.

[31]  Sarit Kraus,et al.  Facing the challenge of human-agent negotiations via effective general opponent modeling , 2009, AAMAS.

[32]  Claudio Bartolini,et al.  AutONA: a system for automated multiple 1-1 negotiation , 2003, EC '03.

[33]  Pattie Maes,et al.  A Real-Life Experiment in Creating an Agent Marketplace , 1997, Software Agents and Soft Computing.

[34]  V. Smith.  Microeconomic Systems as an Experimental Science , 1982 .

[35]  Nicholas R. Jennings,et al.  Determining successful negotiation strategies: an evolutionary approach , 1998, Proceedings International Conference on Multi Agent Systems (Cat. No.98EX160).

[36]  Claudio Bartolini,et al.  AutONA: a system for automated multiple 1-1 negotiation , 2003, EEE International Conference on E-Commerce, 2003. CEC 2003..

[37]  Ya'akov Gal,et al.  Training with automated agents improves people's behavior in negotiation and coordination tasks , 2014, Decis. Support Syst..

[38]  Kil-Soo Suh,et al.  Impact of communication medium on task performance and satisfaction: an examination of media-richness theory , 1999, Inf. Manag..

[39]  William J. Doll,et al.  The Measurement of End-User Computing Satisfaction , 1988, MIS Q..

[40]  Helder Coelho,et al.  Negotiation tactics for autonomous agents , 2001, 12th International Workshop on Database and Expert Systems Applications.

[41]  N. R. Jennings,et al.  To appear in: Int Journal of Group Decision and Negotiation GDN2000 Keynote Paper Automated Negotiation: Prospects, Methods and Challenges , 2022 .

[42]  Rustam M. Vahidov,et al.  Situated Decision Support Approach for Managing Multiple Negotiations , 2006, Negotiation, Auctions, and Market Engineering.

[43]  Andrew Ortony,et al.  Subjective Effectiveness in Agent-to-Human Negotiation: A Frame x Personality Account , 2009, ArgMAS.

[44]  Gregory Kersten,et al.  Experimental Assessment of Agent-Supported Electronic Negotiations , 2013, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact..

[45]  Fu-Ren Lin,et al.  The design and evaluation of an intelligent sales agent for online persuasion and negotiation , 2007, Electron. Commer. Res. Appl..

[46]  Yinping Yang,et al.  Designing an Intelligent Agent that Negotiates Tactfully with Human Counterparts: A Conceptual Analysis and Modeling Framework , 2009 .

[47]  Gregory E. Kersten,et al.  Aspire: an integrated negotiation support system and software agents for e-business negotiation , 2003, Int. J. Internet Enterp. Manag..

[48]  T. N. Wong,et al.  A multi-agent protocol for multilateral negotiations in supply chain management , 2010 .

[49]  Carles Sierra,et al.  HANA: A Human-Aware Negotiation Architecture , 2014, Decis. Support Syst..

[50]  Nicholas R. Jennings,et al.  Negotiation decision functions for autonomous agents , 1998, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[51]  Fred D. Davis,et al.  User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A Comparison of Two Theoretical Models , 1989 .

[52]  Nicholas R. Jennings,et al.  STRATUM: A METHODOLOGY FOR DESIGNING HEURISTIC AGENT NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES , 2007, Appl. Artif. Intell..

[53]  Arie Segev,et al.  Automated Negotiations: A Survey of the State of the Art , 1997, Wirtschaftsinf..