Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their alkylated-, nitro- and oxy-derivatives in the atmosphere over the Mediterranean and Middle East seas

Abstract. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), their alkylated (RPAHs), nitrated (NPAHs) and oxygenated (OPAHs) derivatives are air pollutants. Many of these substances are long-lived, can undergo long-range atmospheric transport and adversely affect human health upon exposure. However, the occurrence and fate of these air pollutants has hardly been studied in the marine atmosphere. In this study, we report the atmospheric concentrations over the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Gulf, determined during the AQABA (Air Quality and Climate Change in the Arabian Basin) project, a comprehensive ship-borne campaign in summer 2017. The average concentrations of ∑27PAHs, ∑19RPAHs, ∑11OPAHs and ∑17NPAHs, in the gas and particulate phase, were 2.85 ± 3.35 ng m−3, 0.83 ± 0.87 ng m−3, 0.24 ± 0.25 ng m−3 and 4.34 ± 7.37 pg m−3, respectively. The Arabian Sea region was the cleanest for all substance classes, with concentrations among the lowest ever reported. Over the Mediterranean Sea, we found the highest average burden of ∑26PAHs and ∑11OPAHs, while the ∑17NPAHs were most abundant over the Arabian Gulf (known also as Persian Gulf). 1,4 Naphthoquinone (1,4-O2NAP) followed by 9-fluorenone and 9,10-anthraquinone were the most abundant studied OPAHs in most samples. The NPAH composition pattern varied significantly across the regions, with 2 nitronaphthalene (2-NNAP) being the most abundant NPAH. According to source apportionment investigations, the main sources of PAH derivatives in the region were ship exhaust emissions, residual oil combustion and continental pollution. All OPAHs and NPAHs except 2-NFLT, which were frequently detected during the campaign, showed elevated concentrations in fresh shipping emissions. In contrast, 2-nitrofluoranthene (2-NFLT) and 2-nitropyrene (2-NPYR) were highly abundant in aged shipping emissions due to secondary formation. Apart from 2-NFLT and 2-NPYR, also benz(a)anthracene-7,12-dione and 1,4-O2NAP had significant photochemical sources. Another finding was that the highest concentrations of PAHs, OPAHs and NPAHs were found in the sub-micrometre fraction of particulate matter (PM1).

[1]  Miguel Ángel Martínez,et al.  Reactive nitrogen around the Arabian Peninsula and in the Mediterranean Sea during the 2017 AQABA ship campaign , 2021, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics.

[2]  T. Harner,et al.  The effects of plume episodes on PAC profiles in the athabasca oil sands region. , 2021, Environmental pollution.

[3]  E. Verbruggen,et al.  Persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity-assessment of petroleum UVCBs: A case study on alkylated three-ring PAHs. , 2021, Chemosphere.

[4]  F. White,et al.  Global Cancer Risk From Unregulated Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons , 2021, GeoHealth.

[5]  M. Apostolaki,et al.  PAHs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in the atmosphere of Eastern Mediterranean: Investigation of their occurrence, sources and gas-particle partitioning in relation to air mass transport pathways , 2021 .

[6]  B. A. Bandowe,et al.  Three years of atmospheric concentrations of nitrated and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and oxygen heterocycles at a central European background site. , 2020, Chemosphere.

[7]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Measurements of carbonyl compounds around the Arabian Peninsula: overview and model comparison , 2020 .

[8]  Miguel Ángel Martínez,et al.  Net ozone production and its relationship to nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the marine boundary layer around the Arabian Peninsula , 2020, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics.

[9]  Hongjun Mao,et al.  Emission characteristics and temporal variation of PAHs and their derivatives from an ocean-going cargo vessel. , 2020, Chemosphere.

[10]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  The Red Sea Deep Water is a potent source of atmospheric ethane and propane , 2020, Nature Communications.

[11]  G. Lammel,et al.  Oxygenated and Nitrated Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Ambient Air—Levels, Phase Partitioning, Mass Size Distributions, and Inhalation Bioaccessibility , 2020, Environmental science & technology.

[12]  J. Paris,et al.  Influence of vessel characteristics and atmospheric processes on the gas and particle phase of ship emission plumes: In-situ measurements in the Mediterranean Sea and around the Arabian Peninsula , 2019 .

[13]  Ke Li,et al.  Effect of changing NOx lifetime on the seasonality and long-term trends of satellite-observed tropospheric NO2 columns over China , 2019, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics.

[14]  C. Samara,et al.  Composition and mass size distribution of nitrated and oxygenated aromatic compounds in ambient particulate matter from southern and central Europe – implications for the origin , 2019, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics.

[15]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Shipborne measurements of ClNO2 in the Mediterranean Sea and around the Arabian Peninsula during summer , 2019, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics.

[16]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Shipborne measurements of total OH reactivity around the Arabian Peninsula and its role in ozone chemistry , 2019, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics.

[17]  G. Murariu,et al.  OVERVIEW OF TROPOSPHERIC NO2 USING THE OZONE MONITORING OBSERVATIONS INSTRUMENT AND HUMAN PERCEPTION ABOUT AIR QUALITY FOR THE MOST POLLUTING COUNTRIES ACCROSS THE WORLD , 2019, Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences.

[18]  Jérôme Ledauphin,et al.  Oxy-PAHs: occurrence in the environment and potential genotoxic/mutagenic risk assessment for human health , 2019, Critical reviews in toxicology.

[19]  Ulrich Pöschl,et al.  Cardiovascular disease burden from ambient air pollution in Europe reassessed using novel hazard ratio functions , 2019, European heart journal.

[20]  Petros Koutrakis,et al.  Concentrations of aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient PM2.5 and PM10 particulates in Doha, Qatar , 2019, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association.

[21]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Non Methane Hydrocarbon (C2–C8) sources and sinks around the Arabian Peninsula , 2019 .

[22]  Hongmei Cao,et al.  Spatiotemporal variation of atmospheric nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in semi-arid and petrochemical industrialized Lanzhou City, Northwest China , 2018, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[23]  Xiang Li,et al.  Particle Size Distributions of Oxidative Potential of Lung-Deposited Particles: Assessing Contributions from Quinones and Water-Soluble Metals. , 2018, Environmental science & technology.

[24]  G. Garçon,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives in airborne particulate matter: sources, analysis and toxicity , 2018, Environmental Chemistry Letters.

[25]  A. Mellouki,et al.  Atmospheric PAHs, NPAHs, and OPAHs at an urban, mountainous, and marine sites in Northern China: Molecular composition, sources, and ageing , 2018 .

[26]  C. Alves,et al.  Organic compounds in particulate and gaseous phase collected in the neighbourhood of an industrial complex in São Paulo (Brazil) , 2018, Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health.

[27]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Aerosol Health Effects from Molecular to Global Scales. , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[28]  X. Querol,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives (nitro-PAHs, oxygenated PAHs, and azaarenes) in PM2.5 from Southern European cities. , 2017, The Science of the total environment.

[29]  Jukka-Pekka Jalkanen,et al.  Global assessment of shipping emissions in 2015 on a high spatial and temporal resolution , 2017 .

[30]  J. Giesy,et al.  Endocrine disrupting potential of PAHs and their alkylated analogues associated with oil spills. , 2017, Environmental science. Processes & impacts.

[31]  J. Jaffrezo,et al.  Sources and atmospheric chemistry of oxy- and nitro-PAHs in the ambient air of Grenoble (France) , 2017 .

[32]  S. Tao,et al.  Estimating relative contributions of primary and secondary sources of ambient nitrated and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , 2017 .

[33]  V. Verma,et al.  Rethinking Dithiothreitol-Based Particulate Matter Oxidative Potential: Measuring Dithiothreitol Consumption versus Reactive Oxygen Species Generation. , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[34]  B. Simoneit,et al.  Characteristics of organic compounds in aerosol particulate matter from Dhahran city, Saudi Arabia , 2017 .

[35]  B. A. Bandowe,et al.  Nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nitro-PAHs) in the environment - A review. , 2017, The Science of the total environment.

[36]  E. Karg,et al.  Aerosol emissions of a ship diesel engine operated with diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil , 2017, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[37]  Ibrahim A. Hassan,et al.  Relationship of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with oxy(quinone) and nitro derivatives during air mass transport. , 2016, The Science of the total environment.

[38]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Daytime formation of nitrous acid at a coastal remote site in Cyprus indicating a common ground source of atmospheric HONO and NO , 2016 .

[39]  G. Lammel,et al.  One-year study of polycyclic aromatic compounds at an urban site in Grenoble (France): Seasonal variations, gas/particle partitioning and cancer risk estimation. , 2016, The Science of the total environment.

[40]  E. Lehndorff,et al.  Emission fingerprint of inland navigation vessels compared with road traffic, domestic heating and ocean going vessels , 2016 .

[41]  A. Cecinato,et al.  Particulate PAHs and n-alkanes in the air over Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Sea. , 2016, Chemosphere.

[42]  F. Meixner,et al.  Bidirectional air–sea exchange and accumulation of POPs (PAHs, PCBs, OCPs and PBDEs) in the nocturnal marine boundary layer , 2016 .

[43]  E. Gregoris,et al.  Impact of maritime traffic on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, metals and particulate matter in Venice air , 2016, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[44]  A. Russell,et al.  Fractionating ambient humic-like substances (HULIS) for their reactive oxygen species activity – Assessing the importance of quinones and atmospheric aging , 2015 .

[45]  Francesco Di Natale,et al.  Particulate matter in marine diesel engines exhausts: Emissions and control strategies , 2015 .

[46]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale , 2015, Nature.

[47]  Yifang Zhu,et al.  Sources, transformation, and health implications of PAHs and their nitrated, hydroxylated, and oxygenated derivatives in PM2.5 in Beijing , 2015 .

[48]  Qingzhu Zhang,et al.  Mechanism and thermal rate constant for the gas-phase ozonolysis of acenaphthylene in the atmosphere. , 2015, The Science of the total environment.

[49]  L. H. Keith.  The Source of U.S. EPA's Sixteen PAH Priority Pollutants , 2015 .

[50]  J. Andersson,et al.  Time to Say Goodbye to the 16 EPA PAHs? Toward an Up-to-Date Use of PACs for Environmental Purposes , 2015, Polycyclic aromatic compounds.

[51]  S. Tao,et al.  Concentrations and origins of nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and oxy-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air in urban and rural areas in northern China. , 2015, Environmental pollution.

[52]  Junji Cao,et al.  Occurrence, gas/particle partitioning and carcinogenic risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their oxygen and nitrogen containing derivatives in Xi'an, central China. , 2015, The Science of the total environment.

[53]  G. Lammel.  Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds in the Atmosphere – A Review Identifying Research Needs , 2015 .

[54]  Qiming Que,et al.  Effects of oil pipeline explosion on ambient particulate matter and their associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. , 2015, Environmental pollution.

[55]  J. Klánová,et al.  Size specific distribution of the atmospheric particulate PCDD/Fs, dl-PCBs and PAHs on a seasonal scale: Implications for cancer risks from inhalation , 2014 .

[56]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Characterisation of an inlet pre-injector laser-induced fluorescence instrument for the measurement of atmospheric hydroxyl radicals , 2014 .

[57]  K. Hayakawa,et al.  Factors affecting atmospheric 1-, 2-nitropyrenes and 2-nitrofluoranthene in winter at Noto peninsula, a remote background site, Japan. , 2014, Chemosphere.

[58]  Bart Degraeuwe,et al.  Impact of maritime transport emissions on coastal air quality in Europe , 2014 .

[59]  Elba C Teixeira,et al.  Assessment of nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM₁ near an area of heavy-duty traffic. , 2014, The Science of the total environment.

[60]  R. Harrison,et al.  Chemical Reactivity and Long-Range Transport Potential of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. A review. , 2014 .

[61]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Observation and modelling of HOx radicals in a boreal forest , 2013 .

[62]  Junji Cao,et al.  PM2.5-bound oxygenated PAHs, nitro-PAHs and parent-PAHs from the atmosphere of a Chinese megacity: Seasonal variation, sources and cancer risk assessment , 2013 .

[63]  H. Budzinski,et al.  Reactivity of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs, NPAHs and OPAHs) adsorbed on natural aerosol particles exposed to atmospheric oxidants , 2012 .

[64]  H. Budzinski,et al.  Particle size distribution of nitrated and oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs and OPAHs) on traffic and suburban sites of a European megacity: Paris (France) , 2012 .

[65]  J. Arey,et al.  Isomer distributions of molecular weight 247 and 273 nitro-PAHs in ambient samples, NIST diesel SRM, and from radical-initiated chamber reactions , 2012 .

[66]  J. Dachs,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Mediterranean Sea: atmospheric occurrence, deposition and decoupling with settling fluxes in the water column. , 2012, Environmental pollution.

[67]  J G Charrier,et al.  On dithiothreitol (DTT) as a measure of oxidative potential for ambient particles: evidence for the importance of soluble transition metals. , 2012, Atmospheric chemistry and physics.

[68]  K. Pozo,et al.  Preliminary characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans in atmospheric PM10 of an urban and a remote area of Chile , 2012, Environmental technology.

[69]  M. Tobiszewski,et al.  PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. , 2012, Environmental pollution.

[70]  M. Khoder,et al.  Atmospheric concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and selected nitrated derivatives in Greater Cairo, Egypt , 2011 .

[71]  P. Hodson,et al.  Measuring the toxicity of alkyl‐phenanthrenes to early life stages of medaka (Oryzias latipes) using partition‐controlled delivery , 2011, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[72]  C. Minero,et al.  An overview of possible processes able to account for the occurrence of nitro-PAHs in Antarctic particulate matter☆ , 2010 .

[73]  F. Buiarelli,et al.  Concentrations of PAHs, and nitro- and methyl- derivatives associated with a size-segregated urban aerosol , 2010 .

[74]  J. C. Galloo,et al.  PM10 metal concentrations and source identification using positive matrix factorization and wind sectoring in a French industrial zone , 2010 .

[75]  D. Lane,et al.  Formation of oxidized products from the reaction of gaseous phenanthrene with the OH radical in a reaction chamber , 2010 .

[76]  J. Dewulf,et al.  Oxygenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in atmospheric particulate matter: Molecular characterization and occurrence , 2010 .

[77]  J. Seinfeld,et al.  Chemical composition of gas- and aerosol-phase products from the photooxidation of naphthalene. , 2010, The journal of physical chemistry. A.

[78]  U. Pöschl,et al.  Kinetic double-layer model of aerosol surface chemistry and gas-particle interactions (K2-SURF): Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposed to O 3 , NO 2 , H 2 O, OH and NO 3 , 2009 .

[79]  Yang Zhang,et al.  Online investigations on ozonation products of pyrene and benz[a]anthracene particles with a vacuum ultraviolet photoionization aerosol time-of-flight mass spectrometer , 2009 .

[80]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Severe ozone air pollution in the Persian Gulf region , 2009 .

[81]  A. Valavanidis,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface seawater and in indigenous mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) from coastal areas of the Saronikos Gulf (Greece) , 2008 .

[82]  William A. Welch,et al.  Emission measurements from a crude oil tanker at sea. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[83]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Hydroxyl radicals in the tropical troposphere over the Suriname rainforest: airborne measurements , 2008 .

[84]  David R. Cocker,et al.  In-use gaseous and particulate matter emissions from a modern ocean going container vessel , 2008 .

[85]  Ranjeet S. Sokhi,et al.  Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Source attribution, emission factors and regulation , 2008 .

[86]  J. Putaud,et al.  Toward a standardized thermal-optical protocol for measuring atmospheric organic and elemental carbon: The EUSAAR protocol , 2008 .

[87]  J. Staehelin,et al.  SCIAMACHY tropospheric NO 2 over Switzerland: estimates of NO x lifetimes and impact of the complex Alpine topography on the retrieval , 2007 .

[88]  Erin H. Green,et al.  Mortality from ship emissions: a global assessment. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[89]  E. Stephanou,et al.  Diurnal cycle of PAHs, nitro-PAHs, and oxy-PAHs in a high oxidation capacity marine background atmosphere. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[90]  H. Budzinski,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitrated PAHs and oxygenated PAHs in ambient air of the Marseilles area (South of France): concentrations and sources. , 2007, The Science of the total environment.

[91]  Shicheng Zhang,et al.  Benz[a]anthracene Heterogeneous Photochemical Reaction on the Surface of TiO2 Particles , 2007 .

[92]  L. Turrio-Baldassarri,et al.  Atmospheric pollution by PAHs, PCDD/Fs and PCBs simultaneously collected at a regional background site in central Italy and at an urban site in Rome. , 2007, Chemosphere.

[93]  Roger Atkinson,et al.  Formation of 9,10-phenanthrenequinone by atmospheric gas-phase reactions of phenanthrene , 2007 .

[94]  J. Arey,et al.  MECHANISMS OF THE GAS-PHASE REACTIONS OF AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS AND PAHS WITH OH AND NO 3 RADICALS , 2007 .

[95]  A. Sweetman,et al.  Passive sampler‐derived air concentrations for polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Kuwait , 2006, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[96]  Yi-Fan Li,et al.  A review of currently used pesticides (CUPs) in Canadian air and precipitation: Part 1: Lindane and endosulfans , 2006 .

[97]  A. Stohl,et al.  Technical note: The Lagrangian particle dispersion model FLEXPART version 6.2 , 2005 .

[98]  J. Arey,et al.  Atmospheric reactions influence seasonal PAH and nitro-PAH concentrations in the Los Angeles basin. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[99]  E. Stephanou,et al.  Occurrence of gaseous and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmosphere: study of sources and ambient temperature effect on the gas/particle concentration and distribution. , 2005, Environmental pollution.

[100]  K. Jones,et al.  Spatial distribution of atmospheric PAHs and PCNs along a north-south Atlantic transect. , 2004, Environmental pollution.

[101]  Petra Seibert,et al.  Source-receptor matrix calculation with a Lagrangian particle dispersion model in backward mode , 2004 .

[102]  P. Stevens,et al.  Rate Constants for the Gas-Phase Reactions of Methylphenanthrenes with OH as a Function of Temperature , 2003 .

[103]  J. Baker,et al.  Nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations and sources in urban and suburban atmospheres of the Mid-Atlantic region , 2003 .

[104]  S. Schantz,et al.  Determination and comparison of nitrated-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons measured in air and diesel particulate reference materials. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[105]  S. Wise,et al.  Determination of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in diesel particulate-related standard reference materials by using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with negative ion chemical ionization , 2003, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[106]  J. Lelieveld,et al.  Global Air Pollution Crossroads over the Mediterranean , 2002, Science.

[107]  E. Stephanou,et al.  Gas–particle concentrations and distribution of aliphatic hydrocarbons, PAHs, PCBs and PCDD/Fs in the atmosphere of Athens (Greece) , 2002 .

[108]  P. Krogh,et al.  Relative sensitivity of three terrestrial invertebrate tests to polycyclic aromatic compounds , 2002, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[109]  P. Krogh,et al.  Soil microbial toxicity of eight polycyclic aromatic compounds: Effects on nitrification, the genetic diversity of bacteria, and the total number of protozoans , 2002, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[110]  B. McConkey,et al.  Measurement of short- and long-term toxicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using luminescent bacteria. , 2002, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.

[111]  C. Minero,et al.  Detection of Nitro-Substituted Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Antarctic Airborne Particulate , 2001 .

[112]  H. Skov,et al.  Occurrence and sources of particulate nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air in Denmark , 2001 .

[113]  P. Siskos,et al.  Nitro-PAH in ambient particulate matter in the atmosphere of Athens. , 2000, Chemosphere.

[114]  J. Bolton,et al.  Role of quinones in toxicology. , 2000, Chemical research in toxicology.

[115]  T. Nielsen,et al.  Effect of Aerosol Chemical Composition on the Photodegradation of Nitro-polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons , 2000 .

[116]  R. Kamens,et al.  Modeling the formation, decay, and partitioning of semivolatile nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nitronaphthalenes) in the atmosphere , 1999 .

[117]  P. Paatero,et al.  Atmospheric aerosol over Alaska: 2. Elemental composition and sources , 1998 .

[118]  G V Alexeeff,et al.  Potency equivalency factors for some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives. , 1998, Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP.

[119]  M. Jang,et al.  Products of benz[a]anthracene photodegradation in the presence of known organic constituents of atmospheric aerosols , 1997 .

[120]  J. Durant,et al.  Human cell mutagenicity of oxygenated, nitrated and unsubstituted polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with urban aerosols. , 1996, Mutation research.

[121]  E. Stephanou,et al.  Organic aerosols in Eastern Mediterranean: components source reconciliation by using molecular markers and atmospheric back trajectories , 1996 .

[122]  A. Cecinato,et al.  Formation and transport of 2‐nitrofluoranthene and 2‐nitropyrene of photochemical origin in the troposphere , 1996 .

[123]  R. Kamens,et al.  Photostability of Nitro-Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on Combustion Soot Particles in Sunlight , 1996 .

[124]  Hélène Budzinski,et al.  ALKYLATED PHENANTHRENE DISTRIBUTIONS AS MATURITY AND ORIGIN INDICATORS IN CRUDE OILS AND ROCK EXTRACTS , 1995 .

[125]  J. Arey,et al.  Atmospheric chemistry of gas-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: formation of atmospheric mutagens. , 1994, Environmental health perspectives.

[126]  D. Helmig,et al.  OH radical-initiated gas-phase reaction products of phenanthrene , 1994 .

[127]  R. Kamens,et al.  A methodology for modeling the formation and decay of nitro-PAH in the atmosphere , 1994 .

[128]  R. Perry,et al.  A review of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Sources, fate and behavior , 1991 .

[129]  R. Niessner,et al.  Ultrafine particles as trace catchers for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: the photoelectric aerosol sensor as a tool for in situ sorption and desorption studies , 1989 .

[130]  B. Zielińska,et al.  The formation of nitro-PAH from the gas-phase reactions of fluoranthene and pyrene with the OH radical in the presence of NOx , 1986 .

[131]  A. Salmon.  IARC monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans , 1985 .