The biosecurity threat to the UK and global environment from international trade in plants

Native plant communities, woodlands and landscapes in the UK and across the world are suffering from pathogens introduced by human activities. Many of these pathogens arrive on or with living plants. The potential for damage in the future may be large, but current international regulations aimed at reducing the risks take insufficient account of scientific evidence and, in practice, are often highly inadequate. In this Letter I outline the problems and discuss some possible approaches to reducing the threats.

[1]  J. Webber.  Status of Phytophthora ramorum and P. kernoviae in Europe , 2008 .

[2]  J. Scott,et al.  European oak declines and global warming: a theoretical assessment with special reference to the activity of Phytophthora cinnamomi , 1994 .

[3]  R. G. Strouts,et al.  Diagnosis of Ill-Health in Trees , 1994 .

[4]  M. Daughtrey,et al.  Dogwood Anthracnose: A New Disease Threatens Two Native Cornus Species , 1994 .

[5]  Takanori Kubono,et al.  Raffaelea quercivora sp. nov. associated with mass mortality of Japanese oak, and the ambrosia beetle (Platypus quercivorus) , 2002 .

[6]  P. Crous.  Hosts, species and genotypes , 2004 .

[7]  T. R. Peace.  The status and development of Elm disease in Britain. , 1960 .

[8]  C. Brasier.  Plant pathology: The rise of the hybrid fungi , 2000, Nature.

[9]  C. Brasier.  Rapid Evolution of Introduced Plant Pathogens via Interspecific Hybridization , 2001 .

[10]  T. Jung,et al.  Phytophthora root and collar rot of alders in Bavaria: distribution, modes of spread and possible management strategies , 2004 .

[11]  David M Rizzo,et al.  Phytophthora ramorum: integrative research and management of an emerging pathogen in California and Oregon forests. , 2005, Annual review of phytopathology.

[12]  R. O'Grady.  The OMB and Science Funding , 2002 .

[13]  G. F. Gravatt,et al.  Root disease of Castanea species and some coniferous and broadleaf nursery stocks, caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. , 1945 .

[14]  Adrienne R Hardham.  Phytophthora cinnamomi. , 2005, Molecular plant pathology.

[15]  E. Ilieva,et al.  Natural Hybrids of Phytophthora nicotianae and Phytophthora cactorum Demonstrated by Isozyme Analysis and Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA. , 1998, Phytopathology.

[16]  T. Jung,et al.  Genetic diversity of European populations of the oak fine-root pathogen Phytophthora quercina , 2005 .

[17]  M. D. Mehrotra,et al.  Ophiostoma himal-ulmi sp. nov., a new species of Dutch elm disease fungus endemic to the Himalayas , 1995 .

[18]  A. Pérez-Sierra,et al.  Outbreak of Pitch Canker Caused by Fusarium circinatum on Pinus spp. in Northern Spain. , 2005, Plant disease.

[19]  J. Gibbs,et al.  PROTECTING EUROPE ' S FORESTS : HOW TO KEEP OUT BOTH KNOWN AND UNKNOWN PATHOGENS * , 2010 .

[20]  R. Baker,et al.  Introductions of non-native plant pathogens into Great Britain, 1970-2004. , 2007 .

[21]  C. Brasier,et al.  Selective acquisition of novel mating type and vegetative incompatibility genes via interspecies gene transfer in the globally invading eukaryote Ophiostoma novo‐ulmi , 2005, Molecular ecology.

[22]  T. Michailides,et al.  Threshold Conditions That Lead Latent Infection to Prune Fruit Rot Caused by Monilinia fructicola. , 2003, Phytopathology.

[23]  B. Henricot,et al.  Cylindrocladium buxicola, a new species affecting Buxus spp., and its phylogenetic status. , 2002, Mycologia.

[24]  J. Gibbs.  Development of the Dutch elm disease epidemic in southern England, 1971‐6 , 1978 .

[25]  H. Dawah,et al.  Species :the units of biodiversity , 1997 .

[26]  B. Henricot,et al.  First record of Erysiphe elevata on Catalpa bignonioides in the UK , 2004 .

[27]  D. Zobel,et al.  Ecology, pathology, and management of Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana) , 1985 .

[28]  S. Anagnostakis.  Revitalization of the Majestic Chestnut: Chestnut Blight Disease. , 2000 .

[29]  S. Denman,et al.  Sudden Oak Death (Phytophthora Ramorum) Discovered on Trees in Europe , 2004 .

[30]  P. Legrand,et al.  Phytophthora disease of alder (Alnus glutinosa) in France: investigations between 1995 and 1999 , 2002 .

[31]  K. Coates,et al.  Is an Unprecedented Dothistroma Needle Blight Epidemic Related to Climate Change? , 2005 .

[32]  C. Brasier.  Phytophthora ramorum + P. kernoviae = international biosecurity failure , 2008 .

[33]  S. Denman,et al.  Phytophthora kernoviae sp. nov., an invasive pathogen causing bleeding stem lesions on forest trees and foliar necrosis of ornamentals in the UK. , 2005, Mycological research.

[34]  J. Duncan,et al.  Origin of a new Phytophthora pathogen through interspecific hybridization. , 1999, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[35]  C. Brasier,et al.  Origin of the Dutch Elm Disease Epidemic in Britain , 1973, Nature.

[36]  T. Harrington,et al.  Intersterility, morphology and taxonomy of Ceratocystis fimbriata on sweet potato, cacao and sycamore. , 2005, Mycologia.

[37]  S. Denman,et al.  Sporulation of Phytophthora ramorum and P. kernoviae on asymptomatic foliage and fruit , 2008 .

[38]  B. Henricot,et al.  First report of Impatiens downy mildew ( Plasmopara obducens ) in the UK , 2005 .

[39]  A. Moreira,et al.  Influence of site factors on the impact of Phytophthora cinnamomi in cork oak stands in Portugal , 2005 .

[40]  K. Geider,et al.  Following spread of fire blight in Western, Central and Southern Europe by molecular differentiation of Erwinia amylovora strains with PFGE analysis. , 2002, Environmental microbiology.

[41]  B. Shearer,et al.  Diseases of Banksia woodlands on the Bassendean and Spearwood dune systems , 1989 .

[42]  R. Cook,et al.  Isolation and identification of Pseudomonas syringae pv. aesculi causing bleeding canker of horse chestnut in the UK. , 2008 .

[43]  C. Brasier,et al.  Survival of clones of NAN Ophiostoma novo-ulmi around its probable centre of appearance in North America , 2000 .

[44]  J. Kliejunas,et al.  Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Fourth Science Symposium. , 2008 .

[45]  C. Brasier.  Episodic selection as a force in fungal microevolution, with special reference to clonal speciation and hybrid introgression , 1995 .

[46]  R. Summerbell,et al.  Natural hybrids of resident and introduced Phytophthora species proliferating on multiple new hosts , 2006, European Journal of Plant Pathology.

[47]  B. Henricot,et al.  First report of Puccinia heucherae on Heuchera spp. in the UK , 2007 .

[48]  D. Hawksworth.  The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 1.5 million species estimate revisited * * Paper presented at , 2001 .

[49]  T. Jung,et al.  Progress in understanding Phytophthora diseases of trees in Europe 2008-2010 , 2009 .

[50]  O. K. Ribeiro,et al.  Phytophthora diseases worldwide , 1998 .

[51]  J. Gibbs,et al.  INTERCONTINENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF DUTCH ELM DISEASE , 1978 .

[52]  S. Werres,et al.  Observations of Phytophthora spp. in Water Recirculation Systems in Commercial Hardy Ornamental Nursery Stock , 2002, European Journal of Plant Pathology.

[53]  D. Rigling,et al.  Biological Control of Chestnut Blight in Europe , 1994 .

[54]  T. Jung,et al.  Phytophthora quercina sp. nov., causing root rot of European oaks , 1999 .

[55]  U. Jönsson.  Phytophthora species and oak decline - can a weak competitor cause significant root damage in a nonsterilized acidic forest soil? , 2004 .

[56]  A. Panconesi,et al.  CANKER STAIN OF PLANE TREES: A SERIOUS DANGER TO URBAN PLANTINGS IN EUROPE , 1999 .

[57]  C. Brasier,et al.  Evidence for Phytophthora cinnamomi involvement in Iberian oak decline , 1993 .

[58]  E. Hansen,et al.  Managing Port-Orford-Cedar and the Introduced Pathogen Phytophthora lateralis. , 2000, Plant disease.

[59]  D. R. Betters,et al.  Economic Analysis of Urban Tree Replacement Decisions , 2000, Arboriculture & Urban Forestry.

[60]  M. Garbelotto,et al.  Microsatellite markers identify three lineages of Phytophthora ramorum in US nurseries, yet single lineages in US forest and European nursery populations , 2006, Molecular ecology.

[61]  E. Hansen,et al.  First Confirmation of Phytophthora lateralis in Europe. , 1999, Plant disease.