Prosodic processes in language and music

In dit proefschrift vergelijken we taal en muziek. Zoals componist Lerdahl en taalkundige Jackendoff laten zien in hun boek ‘A Generative Theory of Tonal Music’, hebben deze twee cognitieve kanten van ons gedrag overeenkomsten, zoals hierarchische structuur, waarin prominente elementen worden onderscheiden van minder belangrijke elementen door middel van zogenaamde preferentieregels. Ook ritme en fraseringsverschijnselen hebben ze met elkaar gemeen. Op preferentieregels gebaseerde theorieen voor fonologie, zoals Optimaliteitstheorie, laten zien dat die overeenkomsten voor fonologische en muzikale analyses nog opvallender zijn dan Lerdahl en Jackendoff suggereren. We laten zien dat muziektheorie kan helpen om taalkundige kwesties op te lossen die moeilijk op te lossen zijn met de taalkundige theorie alleen. Drie van zulke kwesties onderzoeken we experimenteel. De eerste kwestie is of spraak slechts ingekort en gecomprimeerd wordt als mensen sneller gaan spreken, met de zelfde ritmische structuur, of dat het spraakritme verandert onder invloed van tempo. De tweede kwestie is de vraag of recursie gevonden kan worden in de fonologie. Worden fraseringskenmerken zoals accentverschuiving herhaaldelijk toegepast in ingebedde fonologische frases? De derde kwestie gaat over majeur- en mineurmodaliteit in de intonatie van vrolijke en sombere spraak. Een van de belangrijkste vindingen is dat luisteraars hun waarneming soms blijken te baseren op auditieve illusies en niet altijd op het werkelijke geluidsignaal. Luisteraars horen wat ze verwachten te horen. Net als in muziek wordt ritme als regelmatiger gehoord dan het in werkelijkheid is. De resultaten van dit onderzoek bevestigen de aanname dat taal en muziek overeenkomsten hebben op een aantal kenmerken. Beide bestaan ze uit geluid en beide soorten geluid worden door de luisteraar op een vergelijkbare manier gestructureerd. English: This dissertation makes a comparison of language and music. As composer Lerdahl and linguist Jackendoff show in their ‘Generative Theory of Tonal Music’, these two cognitive behaviors share aspects, such as hierarchical structure, in which prominent elements are separated from non-prominent elements by means of preference rules and rhythmic and phrasing phenomena. Recent constraint-based approaches to phonology, such as Optimality Theory, show that the similarities are even more striking for phonological and musical analyses. This dissertation shows that music theory may help to solve linguistic issues with which linguistic theory alone finds it hard to deal. Three such issues are investigated experimentally. The first issue is whether speech is just shortened and compressed when people speak faster, with the same rhythmic structure, or whether the speech rhythm changes. The second issue is the question whether recursion can be found in phonology. Are phrasing phenomena such as early accent placement applied repeatedly in embedded phonological phrases? The third issue is major and minor modality in intonation contours of cheerful and sad speech. One of the main findings is that listeners appear sometimes to base their perception on auditory illusions, not always on the sound signal as it is. Listeners hear what they expect to hear. As in music, rhythm is perceived as more regular than it is in reality. The results of this research confirm the assumption that speech and music share many features. Both are ‘made of’ sound, and both kinds of sound signal are structured by the listener in a similar way.

[1]  J. T. de Jong,et al.  The case of bound pronouns in peripheral Romance , 1996 .

[2]  D. Robert Ladd,et al.  Intonational phrasing: the case for recursive prosodic structure , 1986, Phonology.

[3]  H. de Hoop,et al.  Case configuration and noun phrase interpretation , 1996 .

[4]  Dicky Gilbers,et al.  On the boundaries of phonology and phonetics , 2004 .

[5]  Diana Raffman,et al.  Language, Music, and Mind , 1993 .

[6]  Toni C. M. Rietveld,et al.  Just noticeable differences of articulation rate at sentence level , 1989, Speech Commun..

[7]  Rudolf Stephan,et al.  The New Harvard Dictionary of Music , 1988 .

[8]  Ray Jackendoff,et al.  Toward a Formal Theory of Tonal Music , 1977 .

[9]  B H Repp,et al.  Relational invariance of expressive microstructure across global tempo changes in music performance: An exploratory study , 1994, Psychological research.

[10]  D. Bolinger Two kinds of vowels, two kinds of rhythm , 1981 .

[11]  V. Huss English Word Stress in the Post-Nuclear Position , 1978, Phonetica.

[12]  Elisabeth Selkirk,et al.  The Prosodic Structure of Function Words , 2008 .

[13]  G. Abraham The tradition of Western music , 1974 .

[14]  M. Beckman Stress And Non-Stress Accent , 1986 .

[15]  B. Repp Patterns of expressive timing in performances of a Beethoven minuet by nineteen famous pianists. , 1990 .

[16]  H. de Hoop,et al.  Conflicting constraints : An introduction to optimality theory , 1998 .

[17]  Jmb Jacques Terken,et al.  The perception of prosodic prominence , 2000 .

[18]  Tom Barney English Speech Rhythm: Form and Function in Everyday Verbal Interaction , 1994 .

[19]  Jacqueline Guéron,et al.  The meter of nursery rhymes: An application of the Halle-Keyser theory of meter , 1974 .

[20]  Peter Desain,et al.  The Formation of Rhythmic Categories and Metric Priming , 2003, Perception.

[21]  L. M. Bosveld-de Smet,et al.  On mass and plural quantification: the case of French des/du NPs , 2001 .

[22]  Mark Kas,et al.  Essays on Boolean Functions and Negative Polarity , 1993 .

[23]  Amalia Arvaniti,et al.  Phonology and Phonetic Evidence , 1995 .

[24]  Harry van der Hulst,et al.  The Structure of phonological representations , 1982 .

[25]  Esther Grabe,et al.  Phonology and Phonetic Evidence: Stress shift: do speakers do it or do listeners hear it? , 1995 .

[26]  Jonathon D. Crystal,et al.  The psychology of time , 2007, Behavioural Processes.

[27]  Dieter Hillert Language in Time , 1997 .

[28]  R. Jakobson,et al.  Zur Struktur des russischen Verbums , 1971 .

[29]  M. E. V. Donzel Perception of discourse boundaries and prominence in spontaneous Dutch speech , 1997 .

[30]  P. Kiparsky Stress, Syntax, and Meter , 1975 .

[31]  Tanja Gaustad,et al.  Linguistic knowledge and word sense disambiguation , 2004 .

[32]  D. Abercrombie,et al.  Elements of General Phonetics , 1967 .

[33]  Noam Chomsky,et al.  The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve? , 2002 .

[34]  Martin Braun Speech mirrors norm-tones: Absolute pitch as a normal but precognitive trait , 2001 .

[35]  R. Kager Alternatives to the iambic-trochaic law , 1993 .

[36]  Simon Reynolds,et al.  Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture , 1998 .

[37]  Mark S. Hewitt Vertical maximization and metrical theory , 1992 .

[38]  Rita Landeweerd,et al.  Discourse semantics of perspective and temporal structure , 1998 .

[39]  A. Prince,et al.  On stress and linguistic rhythm , 1977 .

[40]  Carlos Gussenhoven,et al.  Intonation and interpretation: phonetics and phonology , 2002, Speech Prosody 2002.

[41]  K. Pike,et al.  The intonation of American English , 1946 .

[42]  Gijsbert Bos,et al.  Rapid user interface development with the script language Gist , 1993 .

[43]  Helen Dehoop,et al.  Case Configuration and Noun Phrase Interpretation , 1996 .

[44]  J. Hart,et al.  A Perceptual Study of Intonation , 1990 .

[45]  F. Glover,et al.  In Modern Heuristic Techniques for Combinatorial Problems , 1993 .

[46]  Rob Koeling,et al.  Dialogue-based disambiguation: using dialogue status to improve speech understanding , 2002 .

[47]  C. Wright,et al.  Temporal rescaling of simple and complex ratios in rhythmic tapping. , 1995 .

[48]  Geert Booij,et al.  Lexical Phonology and Morphology , 2006 .

[49]  David Sander,et al.  Tone of Voice and Mind: The Connections between Intonation, Emotion, Cognition, and Consciousness , 2005 .

[50]  Joanneke Prenger,et al.  Taal telt!: Een onderzoek naar de rol van taalvaardigheid en tekstbegrip in het realistisch wiskundeonderwijs , 2005 .

[51]  Eugene Galanter,et al.  Handbook of mathematical psychology: I. , 1963 .

[52]  P. Boersma,et al.  Empirical Tests of the Gradual Learning Algorithm , 2001, Linguistic Inquiry.

[53]  Carlos Gussenhoven,et al.  Procliticized Phonological Phrases in English: Evidence from Rhythm* , 2005 .

[54]  R. Oehrle TEMPORAL STRUCTURES IN VERSE DESIGN , 1989 .

[55]  Bruce Hayes,et al.  THE PROSODIC HIERARCHY IN METER , 1989 .

[56]  Omar Hammad,et al.  Prosodic Morphology , 2007 .

[57]  D. Randel,et al.  The New Harvard Dictionary of Music , 1988 .

[58]  Agaath M. C. Sluijter,et al.  Spectral balance as an acoustic correlate of linguistic stress. , 1996, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[59]  Peter Desain,et al.  Does expressive timing in music performance scale proportionally with tempo? , 1994 .

[60]  Lilia Lubomirova Schürcks-Grozeva,et al.  Binding and Bulgarian , 2003 .

[61]  F. Ramus Acoustic correlates of linguistic rhythm: Perspectives , 2002 .

[62]  B. Hayes Metrical Stress Theory: Principles and Case Studies , 1995 .

[63]  René Kager,et al.  Metrical constituency and rhythmic adjustment , 1988, Phonology.

[64]  Laura Sabourin Grammatical Gender and Second Language Processing , 2003 .

[65]  Dwight L. Bolinger,et al.  Forms of English : accent, morpheme, order , 1965 .

[66]  Richard S. J. Frackowiak,et al.  The structural components of music perception. A functional anatomical study. , 1997, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[67]  H. Timothy Bunnell,et al.  Phonology and Phonetic Evidence: The phonology and phonetics of the Rhythm Rule , 1995 .

[68]  J. McCarthy OCP effects: Gemination and antigemination , 1986 .

[69]  Nikolaj Sergejevič Trubeckoj Grundzüge der Phonologie , 1989 .

[70]  Peter Desain,et al.  Tempo Curves Considered Harmful , 1991, ICMC.

[71]  Hubert Truckenbrodt,et al.  On the Relation between Syntactic Phrases and Phonological Phrases , 1999, Linguistic Inquiry.

[72]  Hugo Quené,et al.  Effects of Timing Regularity and Metrical Expectancy on Spoken-Word Perception , 2005, Phonetica.

[73]  G. Ermentrout Dynamic patterns: The self-organization of brain and behavior , 1997 .

[74]  Dharmesh Patel Rhythm , 1919, The Craft of Poetry.

[75]  T. Alan Hall,et al.  Studies on the phonological word , 1999 .

[76]  A. Giannakidou The Landscape of Polarity Items , 1997 .

[77]  Geert Booij,et al.  Yearbook of Morphology 1993 , 1993 .

[78]  D J Povel,et al.  Internal representation of simple temporal patterns. , 1981, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[79]  Mettina Jolanda Arnoldina Veenstra,et al.  Formalizing the minimalist program , 1998 .

[80]  H. Lenstra,et al.  The Mathematical Structure of Escher’s Print Gallery , 2007 .

[81]  Mark-Jan Nederhof,et al.  Practical Experiments with Regular Approximation of Context-Free Languages , 1999, CL.

[82]  Elisabeth Selkirk,et al.  Phonology and Syntax: The Relation between Sound and Structure , 1984 .

[83]  Young-mee Yu Cho,et al.  Variation and Change in Optimality Theory , 1998 .

[84]  W. Jansen Laryngeal contrast and phonetic voicing : a laboratory phonology approach to English, Hungarian, and Dutch , 2004 .

[85]  J. Pierrehumbert The phonology and phonetics of English intonation , 1987 .

[86]  Mark Liberman,et al.  The intonational system of English , 1979 .

[87]  María Begoña Villada Moirón,et al.  University of Groningen Data-driven identification of fixed expressions and their modifiability , 2005 .

[88]  Elisabeth Selkirk,et al.  The Interaction of Constraints on Prosodic Phrasing , 2000 .

[89]  S. Handel The effect of tempo and tone duration on rhythm discrimination , 1993, Perception & psychophysics.

[90]  John Laver,et al.  Principles of Phonetics: Principles of transcription , 1994 .

[91]  René Kager,et al.  Ternary rhythm and the lapse constraint , 1999 .

[92]  Yoichiro Kawaguchi,et al.  A morphological study of the form of nature , 1982, SIGGRAPH.

[93]  A. Anttila Deriving variation from grammar: A study of Finnish genitives , 2000 .

[94]  A. Mullen,et al.  An investigation into compositional features and feature merging for maximum entropy-based parse selection , 2002 .

[95]  P. D. Rijkhoek,et al.  On degree phrases and result clauses , 1998 .

[96]  Leonoor Johanneke van der Beek,et al.  Topics in corpus-based Dutch syntax , 2005 .

[97]  Theodore F. Normann Rhythm and Tempo: A Study in Music History , 1953 .

[98]  G. N. Bienfait,et al.  Grammatica-onderwijs aan allochtone jongeren , 2002 .

[99]  Dicky Gilbers,et al.  Phonological Networks: A Theory of Segment Representation , 1992 .

[100]  Bruce P. Hayes,et al.  Quatrain form in English folk verse , 1998 .

[101]  N. Wallin,et al.  Biomusicology: Neurophysiological, Neuropsychological and Evolutionary Perspectives on the Origins and Purposes of Music , 1992 .

[102]  B H Repp,et al.  Patterns of expressive timing in performances of a Beethoven minuet by nineteen famous pianists. , 1988, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[103]  Alan S. Prince,et al.  Prosodic Morphology 1986 , 1996 .

[104]  Paul Lansky,et al.  Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music , 1989 .

[105]  Anders Löfqvist,et al.  THE ACOUSTICS AND KINEMATICS OF REGULARLY TIMED SPEECH: A DATABASE AND METHOD FOR THE STUDY OF THE P-CENTER PROBLEM , 1999 .

[106]  Junko Ito,et al.  Weak Layering and Word Binarity , 2003 .

[107]  Johan Frid,et al.  Accentuation of Domain-related information in Swedish Dialogues , 2000 .

[108]  Roderick Gould,et al.  Multiple correspondence , 1957, Mech. Transl. Comput. Linguistics.

[109]  Erik Fajoen Tjong-Kim-Sang Machine Learning of Phonotactics , 1998 .

[110]  George A. Miller,et al.  Introduction to the Formal Analysis of Natural Languages , 1968 .

[111]  Stefan Ie Shattuck-Hufnagel,et al.  Phrase-Level Phonology in Speech Production Planning: Evidence for the Role of Prosodic Structure , 2000 .

[112]  George D. Allen,et al.  Speech Rhythm: Its Relation to Performance Universals and Articulatory Timing. , 1975 .

[113]  Aniruddh D. Patel,et al.  Is music autonomous from language? A neuropsychological appraisal. , 1997 .

[114]  C. Gussenhoven The phonology of tone and intonation , 2004 .

[115]  Stasinos Konstantopoulos Using ILP to learn local linguistic structures , 2003 .

[116]  E. H. Klein-van der Laaken,et al.  Adverbs of Degree in Dutch , 1997 .

[117]  Noam Chomsky,et al.  On Certain Formal Properties of Grammars , 1959, Inf. Control..

[118]  Anne H. Anderson,et al.  Teaching Talk: Strategies for Production and Assessment , 1985 .

[119]  M. Vigário On the Prosodic Status of Stressless Function Words in European Portuguese , 1999 .

[120]  René Kager,et al.  Ternary rhythm in alignment theory , 1995 .

[121]  D. Attridge The rhythms of English poetry , 1981 .

[122]  J. Morton,et al.  Perceptual centers (P-centers). , 1976 .

[123]  C. Gussenhoven,et al.  On the Grammar and Semantics of Sentence Accents in Dutch , 1982 .

[124]  Ash Asudeh,et al.  Constraints on Linguistic Coreference: Structural vs. Pragmatic Factors , 2001 .

[125]  Judith Rispens,et al.  Syntactic and phonological processing in developmental dyslexia , 2004 .

[126]  P. Smolensky,et al.  Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar , 2004 .

[127]  P. Fraisse 6 – Rhythm and Tempo , 1982 .

[128]  Taal en muziek in optimaliteitstheorie , 2000 .

[129]  Robert F. Port,et al.  Speech and rhythmic behavior , 1999 .

[130]  Marie Danielle Bougaïré-Zangréyanogho L'approche communicative des campagnes de sensibilisation en santé publique au Burkina Faso: les cas de la planification familiale, du sida et de l'excision , 2004 .

[131]  Aniruddh D. Patel,et al.  An empirical comparison of rhythm in language and music , 2003, Cognition.

[132]  C. D. Gelatt,et al.  Optimization by Simulated Annealing , 1983, Science.

[133]  P. Auer,et al.  Language in Time: The Rhythm and Tempo of Spoken Interaction , 1999 .

[134]  Stefanie Shattuck-Hufnagel,et al.  A prosody tutorial for investigators of auditory sentence processing , 1996, Journal of psycholinguistic research.

[135]  Fred Cummins Rhythmic coordination in English speech : an experimental study , 1997 .

[136]  F. Ramus,et al.  The psychological reality of rhythm classes: Perceptual studies , 2003 .

[137]  R. Jackendoff,et al.  A Generative Theory of Tonal Music , 1985 .

[138]  Margrietha Esther Ruigendijk Case assignment in Agrammatism: a cross-linguistic study , 2001 .

[139]  Bruno H. Repp Quantitative Effects of Global Tempo on Expressive Timing in Music Performance: Some Perceptual Evidence , 1995 .

[140]  Joop Houtman,et al.  Coordination and constituency : a study in categorial grammar , 1994 .

[141]  Shyamal Das SOME ASPECTS OF THE PROSODIC PHONOLOGY OF TRIPURA BANGLA AND TRIPURA BANGLA ENGLISH , 2001 .

[142]  M. Swerts Prosodic features of discourse units , 1994 .

[143]  S. S. Stevens,et al.  Handbook of experimental psychology , 1951 .

[144]  Bart Funnekotter Cambridge Cambridge University , 2005 .

[145]  Dicky Gilbers,et al.  The influence of speech rate on rhythm patterns , 2004 .

[146]  S. Schoof,et al.  An HPSG account of nonfinite verbal complements in Latin , 2004 .

[147]  Stress shift in Dutch as a rhetorical device , 1983 .

[148]  Isabelle Peretz,et al.  Processing Prosodic and Musical Patterns: A Neuropsychological Investigation , 1998, Brain and Language.

[149]  Anthony Fox Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure: The Phonology of Suprasegmentals , 2000 .

[150]  Peter Desain,et al.  Effects of Tempo on the Timing of Simple Musical Rhythms , 2002 .

[151]  Roel Jonkers,et al.  Comprehension and production of verbs in aphasic speakers , 1998 .

[152]  N. Todd A Model of Expressive Timing in Tonal Music , 1985 .

[153]  Eric Hoekstra,et al.  Licensing conditions on phrase structure , 1991 .

[154]  Charles Seeger,et al.  Rhythm and Tempo; A Study in Music History , 1953 .

[155]  K. Yoshioka,et al.  Linguistic and gestural introduction and tracking of referents in L1 and L2 discourse , 2005 .

[156]  Stefanie Shattuck-Hufnagel,et al.  Stress shift and early pitch accent placement in lexical items in American English , 1994 .

[157]  A. Neijt,et al.  Metrische fonologie - de representatie van klemtoon in Nederlandse monomorfematische woorden (Phonologie métrique : la représentation de l'accent dans les mots monomorphématiques néerlandais) , 1982 .

[158]  L. Stowe,et al.  Rethinking the neurological basis of language , 2005 .

[159]  Shalom Zuckerman,et al.  The acquisition of "optional" movement , 2001 .

[160]  I. P. Stoianov,et al.  Connectionist lexical processing , 2001 .

[161]  Dirk Barend den Ouden,et al.  Phonology in aphasia: syllables and segments in level-specific deficits , 2002 .

[162]  Sible Andringa,et al.  Form-focused instruction and the development of second language proficiency , 2005 .

[163]  B. Hayes The phonology of rhythm in English , 1984 .

[164]  P. Lacy,et al.  Papers in optimality theory , 1995 .

[165]  Peter Roach On the distinction between 'stress-timed' and 'syllable-timed' languages , 1982 .

[166]  William E. Cooper,et al.  Metrical phonology in speech production , 1986 .

[167]  E. Visch A metrical theory of rhythmic stress phenomena , 1990 .

[168]  Neil P. McAngus Todd,et al.  A computational model of rubato , 1989 .

[169]  Ann Cutler,et al.  Prosody in the Comprehension of Spoken Language: A Literature Review , 1997, Language and speech.

[170]  Tamás Bíró,et al.  When the Hothead Speaks. Simulated Annealing Optimality Theory for Dutch Fast Speech , 2005, CLIN.

[171]  Norman D. Cook,et al.  Tone of Voice and Mind , 2002 .

[172]  Robert F. Port,et al.  Rhythmic constraints on stress timing in English , 1998 .

[173]  D. Hofstadter,et al.  Godel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid , 1979 .

[174]  Ronaldus Marcus van Zonneveld Affix-grammatika. Een onderzoek naar woordvorming in het Nederlands , 1983 .

[175]  Elisabeth Selkirk,et al.  Sentence Prosody: Intonation, Stress and Phrasing , 1996 .

[176]  Rienk Withaar,et al.  The Role of the Phonological Loop in Sentence Comprehension , 2002 .

[177]  Kim Sauter,et al.  Transfer and access to universal grammar in adult second language acquisition , 2002 .

[178]  G. Booij Cliticization as prosodic integration: The case of Dutch , 1996 .

[179]  F. Ramus,et al.  Correlates of linguistic rhythm in the speech signal , 1999, Cognition.

[180]  C. Palmer Music performance. , 1997, Annual review of psychology.

[181]  Alan Prince,et al.  Prosodic morphology : constraint interaction and satisfaction , 1993 .

[182]  R. Jonkers,et al.  Comprehension and production of verbs in aphasic speakers , 1998 .

[183]  Aniruddh D. Patel,et al.  Language, music, syntax and the brain , 2003, Nature Neuroscience.

[184]  Petra Hendriks,et al.  Comparatives and Categorial Grammar , 1995 .

[185]  Peter Ignacz Blok,et al.  The Interpretation of Focus , 1993 .

[186]  J. D. Jong,et al.  Specific language impairment in Dutch , 1999 .

[187]  Dicky Gilbers Recursive Patterns in Phonological Phrases , 2004 .

[188]  Benoit B. Mandelbrot,et al.  Fractals: Form, Chance and Dimension , 1978 .

[189]  Jan-Wouter Zwart,et al.  Dutch syntax: A minimalist approach , 1993 .

[190]  J. D. Ouden Prosodic realizations of text structure , 2004 .

[191]  Henkjan Honing,et al.  Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing , 2002 .

[192]  H. D. Swart,et al.  Adverbs of quantification : a generalized quantifier approach , 1993 .

[193]  B. Repp A microcosm of musical expression. I. Quantitative analysis of pianists' timing in the initial measures of Chopin's Etude in E major. , 1998, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[194]  C. Palmer Mapping musical thought to musical performance. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[195]  Neslihan Kansu-Yetkiner,et al.  Blood, shame and fear: Self-presentation strategies in Turkish women¿s talk about their health and sexuality , 2002 .

[196]  Andries W. Coetzee,et al.  What it Means to be a Loser: Non-optimal Candidates in Optimality Theory , 2004 .

[197]  Monika Zempleni,et al.  Functional imaging of the hemispheric contribution to language processing , 2006 .

[198]  Alan S. Prince,et al.  Generalized alignment , 1993 .

[199]  Dicky Gilbers,et al.  Music as a Method of Identifying Emotional Speech , 2006 .

[200]  Alvy Ray Smith,et al.  Plants, fractals, and formal languages , 1984, SIGGRAPH.

[201]  D. Liberman,et al.  [Time perception]. , 1955, Revista de psicoanalisis.

[202]  B. Hayes,et al.  The role of phonological phrasing in sung and chanted verse , 1996 .

[203]  Curt Sachs Rhythm and tempo , 1953 .

[204]  Jason Eisner,et al.  Directional Constraint Evaluation in Optimality Theory , 2022 .

[205]  Aniruddh D. Patel Syntactic Processing in Language and Music: Different Cognitive Operations, Similar Neural Resources? , 1998 .

[206]  C. Gussenhoven The English Rhythm Rule as an accent deletion rule , 1991, Phonology.

[207]  Takashi X. Fujisawa,et al.  Application of a Psychoacoustical Model of Harmony to Speech Prosody , 2004 .

[208]  R. M. Dauer Stress-timing and syllable-timing reanalyzed. , 1983 .

[209]  Merle Horne,et al.  Prosody: Theory and Experiment , 2000 .

[210]  Dwight L. Bolinger,et al.  On pre-accentual lengthening , 1982, Journal of the International Phonetic Association.

[211]  S. Wal Negative Polarity Items and Negation: Tandem Acquisition , 1996 .

[212]  Robbert Prins,et al.  Finite-state pre-processing for natural language analysis , 2005 .

[213]  B. Wenk Just in time: on speech rhythms in music , 1987 .

[214]  Taal, Kunst en Biologie , 2003 .

[215]  B. Dresher The Germanic foot: metrical coherence in Old English , 1991 .

[216]  Denise Brandão de Oliveira e Britto,et al.  The faculty of language , 2007 .

[217]  Edith Kaan,et al.  Processing subject-object ambiguities in Dutch , 1997 .

[218]  E. Couper-Kuhlen English speech rhythm , 1993 .