Weaponizing Tear Gas: Bahrain’s Unprecedented Use of Toxic Chemical Agents Against Civilians.

How does access to this work benefit you? Let us know! Follow this and additional works at: http://academicworks.cuny.edu/cc_pubs Part of the Chemical and Pharmacologic Phenomena Commons, Human Rights Law Commons, International Law Commons, International Public Health Commons, Medical Toxicology Commons, Near and Middle Eastern Studies Commons, Other Public Health Commons, and the Toxicology Commons

[1]  Lois Ember CHEMICAL WEAPONS CONVENTION: U.S. closer to meeting its treaty obligations, but much remains to be done , 1998 .

[2]  F W Beswick,et al.  Acute effects of exposure to orthochlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) and the development of tolerance , 1972, British journal of industrial medicine.

[3]  P. Blain Tear Gases and Irritant Incapacitants , 2003, Toxicological reviews.

[4]  F. Vaca,et al.  Delayed pulmonary edema and bronchospasm after accidental lacrimator exposure. , 1996, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[5]  J. Calvet,et al.  Effect of oleoresin capsicum (OC) and ortho-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) on ciliary beat frequency. , 2001, Toxicology.

[6]  W. Robinson,et al.  Suppression of sebaceous gland non-specific esterase activity by electrophilicαβ-unsaturated compounds , 1975, Experientia.

[7]  I. Moppett,et al.  Postoperative complications after CS spray exposure , 2004, Anaesthesia.

[8]  V. Murray,et al.  Possible immediate and long-term health effects following exposure to chemical warfare agents. , 2000, Public health.

[9]  E. Weir The health impact of crowd-control agents. , 2001, CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne.

[10]  Unoda Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction [BWC Convention], U.N. Doc. A/Res/2826; 1015 U.N.T.S. 163; 26 U.S.T. 583; 11 I.L.M. 309 (10 Apr. 1972) , 2001, International Terrorism: Multilateral Conventions (1937-2001).

[11]  G. R. Jones CS gas: an antidote and decontaminant. , 1991, Military medicine.

[12]  B. Danto Medical problems and criteria regarding the use of tear gas by police. , 1987, The American journal of forensic medicine and pathology.

[13]  D. Hoffmann Eye burns caused by tear gas. , 1967, The British journal of ophthalmology.

[14]  J. B. Hutchins,et al.  Microbiological, Biological, and Chemical Weapons of Warfare and Terrorism , 2002, The American journal of the medical sciences.

[15]  N. L. Cross,et al.  A repeated dose study of the toxicity of inhaled 2-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) aerosol in three species of laboratory animal , 1983, Archives of Toxicology.

[16]  E. Zeiger,et al.  Salmonella mutagenicity tests: III. Results from the testing of 255 chemicals. , 1987, Environmental mutagenesis.

[17]  Mark A Brown Military chemical warfare agent human subjects testing: part 2--long-term health effects among participants of U.S. military chemical warfare agent testing. , 2009, Military Medicine.

[18]  A J Chapman,et al.  Death resulting from lacrimatory agents. , 1978, Journal of forensic sciences.

[19]  J. P. Adams,et al.  Tear-gas injuries. A clinical study of hand injuries and an experimental study of its effects on peripheral nerves and skeletal muscles in rabbits. , 1966, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[20]  K. Nixdorff Biological Weapons Convention , 2006 .

[21]  L. Mathieu,et al.  Prevention of CS "tear gas" eye and skin effects and active decontamination with Diphoterine: preliminary studies in 5 French Gendarmes. , 2005, The Journal of emergency medicine.

[22]  S. Giammona,et al.  Toxic effects of tear gas on an infant following prolonged exposure. , 1972, American journal of diseases of children.

[23]  Orfanos,et al.  Occupational contact dermatitis due to 2‐chloracetophenone tear gas , 1999, The British journal of dermatology.

[24]  R. Levine,et al.  Eye injury caused by tear-gas weapons. , 1968, American journal of ophthalmology.

[25]  R. Yeung,et al.  Acute mass burns caused by o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) tear gas. , 1995, Burns : journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries.

[26]  A. R. Hill,et al.  Medical Hazards of the Tear Gas CS A Case of Persistent, Multisystem, Hypersensitivity Reaction and Review of the Literature , 2000, Medicine.

[27]  B. Lukey,et al.  Chemical warfare agents: chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and therapeutics. , 2007 .

[28]  H. Salem,et al.  Riot Control Agents , 2014 .

[29]  A. Chapman Effectiveness of selection in laboratory animals. , 1951, Journal of animal science.

[30]  A. Kiel Ocular exposure to CS gas: The importance of correct early management , 1997, Eye.

[31]  J. Calvet,et al.  Comparative acute toxicity of o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) and oleoresin capsicum (OC) in awake rats , 1999, Human & experimental toxicology.

[32]  P J Gray CS gas is not a chemical means of restraining a person , 1997, BMJ.

[33]  J. R. Newton,et al.  Short-term and long-term physical effects of exposure to CS spray. , 2003, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[34]  W. Kirwan,et al.  CHLORACETOPHENONE (TEAR GAS) POISONING: A CLINICO-PATHOLOGIC REPORT. , 1964, Journal of forensic sciences.

[35]  B. Ballantyne,et al.  Inhalation Toxicology and Pathology of Animals Exposed to o-Chlorobenzylidene Malononitrile (CS) , 1972, Medicine, science, and the law.

[36]  C. Schlatter,et al.  Tests for mutagenicity in salmonella and covalent binding to DNA and protein in the rat of the riot control agent o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) , 1981, Archives of Toxicology.

[37]  Dennis. A. Weigernd Cutaneous Reaction to the Riot Control Agent CS , 1969 .

[38]  J. Fine,et al.  Tear gas--harassing agent or toxic chemical weapon? , 1989, JAMA.

[39]  S. M. Wilkinson,et al.  Exposure‐pattern dermatitis due to CS gas , 1999, Contact dermatitis.

[40]  John Hart,et al.  Chemical and Biological Warfare: A Comprehensive Survey for the Concerned Citizen , 1997 .

[41]  Maynard H. Finley A New Method of Dispensing Tear Gas in Dealing with Riots and Mobs , 1938 .

[42]  M. Yaman,et al.  Acute laryngeal and bronchial obstruction after CS (o-chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile) gas inhalation , 2009, European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology.

[43]  Oaks Lw,et al.  Tear gas burns of the eye. , 1960 .

[44]  Michael E. Asbury MADE IN BRAZIL , 2008 .

[45]  Paula A Burgess,et al.  Secondary contamination of emergency department personnel from o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile exposure, 2002. , 2005, Annals of emergency medicine.

[46]  Roger Suckling Walk to work , 2006 .

[47]  T. Estlander,et al.  A single accidental exposure may result in a chemical burn, primary sensitization and allergic contact dermatitis , 1994, Contact dermatitis.

[48]  S. Varma,et al.  Severe cutaneous reaction to CS gas , 2001, Clinical and experimental dermatology.

[49]  N. Penneys,et al.  Contact dermatitis due to 1-chloroacetophenone and chemical mace. , 1969, The New England journal of medicine.

[50]  Lisa Tabassi,et al.  Making Treaties Work: The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (Chemical Weapons Convention) , 2007 .

[51]  L. Salminen,et al.  EYE INJURIES CAUSED BY TEAR‐GAS HAND WEAPONS , 1975, Acta ophthalmologica.

[52]  J. S. Taylor,et al.  Industrial contact dermatitis. Effect of the riot control agent ortho-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile. , 1973, Archives of dermatology.

[53]  G. R. Jones,et al.  Mechanism of Toxicity of Injected CS Gas , 1970, Nature.

[54]  J. A. Graff,et al.  Crippling a People: Palestinian Children and Israeli State Violence/ ﺗﻌﻮﻳﻖ ﺷﻌﺐ: ﺍﻷﻃﻔﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﻴﻨﻴﻮﻥ ﻭﻋﻨﻒ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻹﺳﺮﺍﺋﻴﻠﻴﺔ , 1993 .

[55]  C. Tomuschat International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , 2020, A Commentary on the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

[56]  I. Bernstein,et al.  Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS). Persistent asthma syndrome after high level irritant exposures. , 1985, Chest.

[57]  P. Holland,et al.  THE CUTANEOUS REACTIONS PRODUCED BY o‐CHLOROBENZYL‐IDENEMALONONITRILE AND ω‐CHLOROACETOPHENONE WHEN APPLIED DIRECTLY TO THE SKIN OF HUMAN SUBJECTS , 1972, The British journal of dermatology.

[58]  Woodhall Stopford,et al.  Riot Control Agents , 2004 .

[59]  J. Madden Cutaneous hypersensitivity to tear gas (chloroacetophenone); a case report. , 1951, A.M.A. archives of dermatology and syphilology.

[60]  A. Giles,et al.  Sensitization of guinea pigs to alpha-chloroacetophenone (CN) and ortho-chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile (CS), tear gas chemicals. , 1972, Journal of immunology.

[61]  D. Mcgregor,et al.  Responses of the L5178Y tk+/tk− mouse lymphoma cell forward mutation assay ii: 18 coded chemicals , 1988, Environmental and molecular mutagenesis.

[62]  D. G. Upshall Effects of o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) and the stress of aerosol inhalation upon rat and rabbit embryonic development. , 1973, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[63]  B. Clin,et al.  Lethal head injury due to tear-gas cartridge gunshots. , 2003, Forensic science international.

[64]  J. Sanford Medical aspects of riot control (harassing) agents. , 1976, Annual review of medicine.

[65]  W. Robinson,et al.  The Suppression of Non-specific Esterase Activity in Mouse Skin Sebaceous Gland by “CS” Gas , 1972, Nature.

[66]  Y. Buyuk,et al.  Fatal cranial shot by blank cartridge gun: two suicide cases. , 2009, Journal of forensic and legal medicine.

[67]  F. T. Fraunfelde Is CS gas dangerous? , 2000, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[68]  Use of Force , 2007 .