Energy-Aware Scheduling for Real-Time Systems

This article presents a survey of energy-aware scheduling algorithms proposed for real-time systems. The analysis presents the main results starting from the middle 1990s until today, showing how the proposed solutions evolved to address the evolution of the platform's features and needs. The survey first presents a taxonomy to classify the existing approaches for uniprocessor systems, distinguishing them according to the technology exploited for reducing energy consumption, that is, Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS), Dynamic Power Management (DPM), or both. Then, the survey discusses the approaches proposed in the literature to deal with the additional problems related to the evolution of computing platforms toward multicore architectures.

[1]  Diana Marculescu,et al.  Analysis of dynamic voltage/frequency scaling in chip-multiprocessors , 2007, Proceedings of the 2007 international symposium on Low power electronics and design (ISLPED '07).

[2]  Ying Lu,et al.  Efficient Power Management of Heterogeneous Soft Real-Time Clusters , 2008, 2008 Real-Time Systems Symposium.

[3]  Dimitrios Soudris,et al.  Designing Cmos Circuits For Low Power , 2011 .

[4]  Lothar Thiele,et al.  Power management schemes for heterogeneous clusters under quality of service requirements , 2011, SAC.

[5]  Qi Yang,et al.  Energy - responsiveness tradeoffs for real-time systems with mixed workload , 2004, Proceedings. RTAS 2004. 10th IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium, 2004..

[6]  Giuseppe Lipari,et al.  Minimizing CPU energy in real-time systems with discrete speed management , 2009, TECS.

[7]  Rajesh K. Gupta,et al.  Procrastination scheduling in fixed priority real-time systems , 2004, LCTES '04.

[8]  Vinay Devadas,et al.  Coordinated power management of periodic real-time tasks on chip multiprocessors , 2010, International Conference on Green Computing.

[9]  Steve Goddard,et al.  A dynamic voltage scaling algorithm for sporadic tasks , 2003, RTSS 2003. 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium, 2003.

[10]  Rajesh K. Gupta,et al.  Energy aware non-preemptive scheduling for hard real-time systems , 2005, 17th Euromicro Conference on Real-Time Systems (ECRTS'05).

[11]  Sang Lyul Min,et al.  Preemption-aware dynamic voltage scaling in hard real-time systems , 2004, Proceedings of the 2004 International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design (IEEE Cat. No.04TH8758).

[12]  Krishnan Srinivasan,et al.  Integer linear programming and heuristic techniques for system-level low power scheduling on multiprocessor architectures under throughput constraints , 2007, Integr..

[13]  Kenji Funaoka,et al.  Energy-Efficient Optimal Real-Time Scheduling on Multiprocessors , 2008, 2008 11th IEEE International Symposium on Object and Component-Oriented Real-Time Distributed Computing (ISORC).

[14]  Dongkun Shin,et al.  Intra-Task Voltage Scheduling for Low-Energy, Hard Real-Time Applications , 2001, IEEE Des. Test Comput..

[15]  Lothar Thiele,et al.  Adaptive Dynamic Power Management for Hard Real-Time Systems , 2009, 2009 30th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium.

[16]  Gang Quan,et al.  Minimum Energy Fixed-Priority Scheduling for Variable Voltage Processor , 2003, IEEE Trans. Comput. Aided Des. Integr. Circuits Syst..

[17]  Stefan M. Petters,et al.  Enhanced Race-To-Halt: A Leakage-Aware Energy Management Approach for Dynamic Priority Systems , 2011, 2011 23rd Euromicro Conference on Real-Time Systems.

[18]  John P. Lehoczky,et al.  Partitioned Fixed-Priority Preemptive Scheduling for Multi-core Processors , 2009, 2009 21st Euromicro Conference on Real-Time Systems.

[19]  Rami G. Melhem,et al.  Power-aware scheduling for periodic real-time tasks , 2004, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[20]  Leon Atkins,et al.  Algorithms for power savings , 2014 .

[21]  Rami G. Melhem,et al.  Minimizing expected energy consumption in real-time systems through dynamic voltage scaling , 2007, TOCS.

[22]  Hiroaki Takada,et al.  Practical Energy-Aware Scheduling for Real-Time Multiprocessor Systems , 2009, 2009 15th IEEE International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications.

[23]  Yao Guo,et al.  Energy-Aware Fixed-Priority Multi-core Scheduling for Real-Time Systems , 2011, 2011 IEEE 17th International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications.

[24]  Jihong Kim,et al.  On energy-optimal voltage scheduling for fixed-priority hard real-time systems , 2003, TECS.

[25]  Gabriel A. Moreno,et al.  An Optimal Real-Time Voltage and Frequency Scaling for Uniform Multiprocessors , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications.

[26]  Lothar Thiele,et al.  Real-time calculus for scheduling hard real-time systems , 2000, 2000 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems. Emerging Technologies for the 21st Century. Proceedings (IEEE Cat No.00CH36353).

[27]  Vinay Devadas,et al.  On the interplay of dynamic voltage scaling and dynamic power management in real-time embedded applications , 2008, EMSOFT '08.

[28]  Tei-Wei Kuo,et al.  Leakage-Aware Energy-Efficient Scheduling of Real-Time Tasks in Multiprocessor Systems , 2006, 12th IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium (RTAS'06).

[29]  Chin-Fu Kuo,et al.  Energy-Efficient Scheduling for Real-Time Systems on Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS) Platforms , 2007, 13th IEEE International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications (RTCSA 2007).

[30]  Dakai Zhu,et al.  System-Level Energy Management for Periodic Real-Time Tasks , 2006, 2006 27th IEEE International Real-Time Systems Symposium (RTSS'06).

[31]  Taewhan Kim Application-Driven Low-Power Techniques Using Dynamic Voltage Scaling , 2006, 12th IEEE International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications (RTCSA'06).

[32]  Rami G. Melhem,et al.  Minimizing expected energy in real-time embedded systems , 2005, EMSOFT.

[33]  O. Khan,et al.  ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems continued on back cover , 2018 .

[34]  Ragunathan Rajkumar,et al.  Coexistence of Real-Time and Interactive & Batch Tasks in DVS Systems , 2008, 2008 IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium.

[35]  Siva G. Narendra,et al.  Leakage in Nanometer CMOS Technologies , 2010 .

[36]  Dakai Zhu,et al.  Reliability-Aware Energy Management for Periodic Real-Time Tasks , 2007, 13th IEEE Real Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium (RTAS'07).

[37]  Tei-Wei Kuo,et al.  Preemption Control for Energy-Efficient Task Scheduling in Systems with a DVS Processor and Non-DVS Devices , 2007, 13th IEEE International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications (RTCSA 2007).

[38]  Lothar Thiele,et al.  Periodic power management schemes for real-time event streams , 2009, Proceedings of the 48h IEEE Conference on Decision and Control (CDC) held jointly with 2009 28th Chinese Control Conference.

[39]  Wang Yi,et al.  Fixed-Priority Multiprocessor Scheduling with Liu and Layland's Utilization Bound , 2010, 2010 16th IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium.

[40]  Giorgio C. Buttazzo,et al.  Limited Preemptive Scheduling for Real-Time Systems. A Survey , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics.

[41]  James W. Layland,et al.  Scheduling Algorithms for Multiprogramming in a Hard-Real-Time Environment , 1989, JACM.

[42]  Fanxin Kong,et al.  Energy Minimizing for Parallel Real-Time Tasks Based on Level-Packing , 2012, 2012 IEEE International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications.

[43]  Hakan Aydin,et al.  Minimizing expected energy consumption through optimal integration of DVS and DPM , 2009, 2009 IEEE/ACM International Conference on Computer-Aided Design - Digest of Technical Papers.

[44]  Lothar Thiele,et al.  Energy efficient DVFS scheduling for mixed-criticality systems , 2014, 2014 International Conference on Embedded Software (EMSOFT).

[45]  Scott A. Brandt,et al.  Dynamic integrated scheduling of hard real-time, soft real-time, and non-real-time processes , 2003, RTSS 2003. 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium, 2003.

[46]  Sparsh Mittal,et al.  A survey of techniques for improving energy efficiency in embedded computing systems , 2014, Int. J. Comput. Aided Eng. Technol..

[47]  Andy J. Wellings,et al.  Dual priority scheduling , 1995, Proceedings 16th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium.

[48]  Chang-Gun Lee,et al.  Multi-Speed DVS Algorithms for Periodic Tasks with Non-Preemptible Sections , 2007, 13th IEEE International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications (RTCSA 2007).

[49]  David C. Snowdon,et al.  Integrating real time and power management in a real system , 2008 .

[50]  Giorgio C. Buttazzo,et al.  Platform-aware bandwidth-oriented energy management algorithm for real-time embedded systems , 2011, ETFA2011.

[51]  Binoy Ravindran,et al.  An Optimal Real-Time Scheduling Algorithm for Multiprocessors , 2006, 2006 27th IEEE International Real-Time Systems Symposium (RTSS'06).

[52]  Dakai Zhu,et al.  Reliability-Aware Energy Management for Periodic Real-Time Tasks , 2009, IEEE Trans. Computers.

[53]  Ragunathan Rajkumar,et al.  Practical voltage-scaling for fixed-priority RT-systems , 2003, The 9th IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium, 2003. Proceedings..

[54]  Ying Zhang,et al.  Energy-aware adaptive checkpointing in embedded real-time systems , 2003, 2003 Design, Automation and Test in Europe Conference and Exhibition.

[55]  Tei-Wei Kuo,et al.  Procrastination for leakage-aware rate-monotonic scheduling on a dynamic voltage scaling processor , 2006, LCTES '06.

[56]  Frank Mueller,et al.  Feedback EDF Scheduling of Real-Time Tasks Exploiting Dynamic Voltage Scaling , 2005, Real-Time Systems.

[57]  Daniel P. Siewiorek,et al.  Nonideal battery and main memory effects on CPU speed-setting for low power , 2001, IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. Syst..

[58]  Binoy Ravindran,et al.  Utility Accrual Real-Time Scheduling Under the Unimodal Arbitrary Arrival Model with Energy Bounds , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[59]  Eric Rotenberg,et al.  FAST: Frequency-aware static timing analysis , 2006, TECS.

[60]  Rami G. Melhem,et al.  Determining optimal processor speeds for periodic real-time tasks with different power characteristics , 2001, Proceedings 13th Euromicro Conference on Real-Time Systems.

[61]  Rami G. Melhem,et al.  Practical PACE for embedded systems , 2004, EMSOFT '04.

[62]  K.G. Shin,et al.  On-line dynamic voltage scaling for hard real-time systems using the EDF algorithm , 2004, 25th IEEE International Real-Time Systems Symposium.

[63]  Gang Chen,et al.  Abstract: Energy optimization for real-time multiprocessor system-on-chip with optimal DVFS and DPM combination , 2013, The 11th IEEE Symposium on Embedded Systems for Real-time Multimedia.

[64]  Giorgio C. Buttazzo,et al.  An energy-aware algorithm exploiting limited preemptive scheduling under fixed priorities , 2013, 2013 8th IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Embedded Systems (SIES).

[65]  Giorgio C. Buttazzo,et al.  Energy management for tiny real-time kernels , 2011, 2011 International Conference on Energy Aware Computing.

[66]  F. Frances Yao,et al.  A scheduling model for reduced CPU energy , 1995, Proceedings of IEEE 36th Annual Foundations of Computer Science.

[67]  Kang G. Shin,et al.  Real-time dynamic voltage scaling for low-power embedded operating systems , 2001, SOSP.

[68]  Giorgio C. Buttazzo,et al.  On the effectiveness of energy-aware real-time scheduling algorithms on single-core platforms , 2014, Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Emerging Technology and Factory Automation (ETFA).

[69]  Abhilash Thekkilakattil,et al.  Limited Preemptive Scheduling in Real-time Systems , 2016 .

[70]  Hiroto Yasuura,et al.  Voltage scheduling problem for dynamically variable voltage processors , 1998, Proceedings. 1998 International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design (IEEE Cat. No.98TH8379).

[71]  Gang Quan,et al.  Minimum energy fixed-priority scheduling for variable voltage processors , 2002, Proceedings 2002 Design, Automation and Test in Europe Conference and Exhibition.

[72]  Jian-Jia Chen,et al.  Energy efficiency analysis for the Single Frequency Approximation (SFA) scheme , 2013, 2013 IEEE 19th International Conference on Embedded and Real-Time Computing Systems and Applications.

[73]  ChenGang,et al.  Energy optimization for real-time multiprocessor system-on-chip with optimal DVFS and DPM combination , 2014 .

[74]  Binoy Ravindran,et al.  An experimental evaluation of real-time DVFS scheduling algorithms , 2012, SYSTOR '12.

[75]  Christian Poellabauer,et al.  Energy-Conscious Co-scheduling of Tasks and Packets in Wireless Real-Time Environments , 2009, 2009 15th IEEE Real-Time and Embedded Technology and Applications Symposium.

[76]  Anthony Rowe,et al.  Rate-Harmonized Scheduling and Its Applicability to Energy Management , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics.

[77]  Mahmut T. Kandemir,et al.  Leakage Current: Moore's Law Meets Static Power , 2003, Computer.

[78]  Rami G. Melhem,et al.  Scheduling with Dynamic Voltage/Speed Adjustment Using Slack Reclamation in Multiprocessor Real-Time Systems , 2003, IEEE Trans. Parallel Distributed Syst..

[79]  Rami G. Melhem,et al.  The effects of energy management on reliability in real-time embedded systems , 2004, IEEE/ACM International Conference on Computer Aided Design, 2004. ICCAD-2004..

[80]  Rajesh K. Gupta,et al.  Dynamic slack reclamation with procrastination scheduling in real-time embedded systems , 2005, Proceedings. 42nd Design Automation Conference, 2005..

[81]  Rajesh K. Gupta,et al.  Leakage aware dynamic voltage scaling for real-time embedded systems , 2004, Proceedings. 41st Design Automation Conference, 2004..

[82]  Gang Quan,et al.  Transition-overhead-aware voltage scheduling for fixed-priority real-time systems , 2007, TODE.

[83]  Kevin Skadron,et al.  Power-aware QoS management in Web servers , 2003, RTSS 2003. 24th IEEE Real-Time Systems Symposium, 2003.

[84]  Yeong Rak Seong,et al.  On-Line Dynamic Voltage Scaling on Processor with Discrete Frequency and Voltage Levels , 2007, 2007 International Conference on Convergence Information Technology (ICCIT 2007).

[85]  Linwei Niu,et al.  Reducing both dynamic and leakage energy consumption for hard real-time systems , 2004, CASES '04.

[86]  Jan Kuper,et al.  Optimal DPM and DVFS for frame-based real-time systems , 2013, TACO.

[87]  Linwei Niu,et al.  Fixed priority scheduling for reducing overall energy on variable voltage processors , 2004, 25th IEEE International Real-Time Systems Symposium.

[88]  Luca Benini,et al.  A survey of design techniques for system-level dynamic power management , 2000, IEEE Trans. Very Large Scale Integr. Syst..

[89]  Yann-Hang Lee,et al.  Scheduling techniques for reducing leakage power in hard real-time systems , 2003, 15th Euromicro Conference on Real-Time Systems, 2003. Proceedings..

[90]  Jan Kuper,et al.  On the Interplay between Global DVFS and Scheduling Tasks with Precedence Constraints , 2015, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[91]  Qi Yang,et al.  Energy-aware partitioning for multiprocessor real-time systems , 2003, Proceedings International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium.

[92]  Anantha P. Chandrakasan,et al.  Low-power CMOS digital design , 1992 .