Expert Tutors Feedback Is Immediate, Direct, and Discriminating

Feedback is critical in both human and computer tutoring because it has directive, facilitative, and motivational functions. An understanding of the feedback strategies of expert human tutors is essential for ITSs that aspire to model such tutors. Although previous research suggests that expert tutors provide indirect and delayed feedback, methodological concerns limit the generalizability of these findings. In order to alleviate some of these methodological concerns, we conducted a fine-grained analysis of the feedback strategies of 10 expert tutors across 50 sessions. We analyzed the likelihood that tutors provide positive, negative, and neutral feedback immediately following students’ correct, partially-correct, error-ridden, vague, or no answers. Our results support the conclusion that expert tutors feedback is direct, immediate, discriminating, and largely domain independent. We discuss the implication of our results for the development of an ITS that aspires to model expert tutors.

[1]  A. Graesser,et al.  Monitoring Affective Trajectories during Complex Learning , 2007 .

[2]  Mary Katsikitis,et al.  The 'expert' in problem-based and case-based learning: necessary or not? , 2001 .

[3]  P J Hay,et al.  The ‘expert’ in problem‐based and case‐based learning: necessary or not? , 2001, Medical education.

[4]  C. Stasz,et al.  Tutoring Techniques in Algebra , 1990 .

[5]  Albert T. Corbett,et al.  Cognitive Computer Tutors: Solving the Two-Sigma Problem , 2001, User Modeling.

[6]  Jennifer G. Cromley,et al.  What Do Reading Tutors Do? A Naturalistic Study of More and Less Experienced Tutors in Reading , 2005 .

[7]  J. Michael,et al.  NOVICE VS. EXPERT TUTORS: A COMPARISON OF STYLE , 1999 .

[8]  Pamela W. Jordan,et al.  Student Initiative and Questioning Strategies in Computer-Mediated Human Tutoring Dialogues , 2002 .

[9]  Arthur C. Graesser,et al.  Workshop on Modeling Human Teaching Tactics and Strategies , 2004, Intelligent Tutoring Systems.

[10]  F. Schmidt.  Meta-Analysis , 2008 .

[11]  P. Black,et al.  Assessment and Classroom Learning , 1998 .

[12]  V. Shute.  Focus on Formative Feedback , 2008 .

[13]  Roger Azevedo,et al.  A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Feedback in Computer-Based Instruction , 1995 .

[14]  Joseph P. Magliano,et al.  Inferring what the student knows in one-to-one tutoring: The role of student questions and answers , 1994 .

[15]  B. Bloom.  The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring , 1984 .

[16]  Chen-Lin C. Kulik,et al.  Timing of Feedback and Verbal Learning , 1988 .

[17]  Chen-Lin C. Kulik,et al.  The Instructional Effect of Feedback in Test-Like Events , 1991 .

[18]  J. D. Fletcher,et al.  The Case for Advanced Distributed Learning , 2004 .

[19]  Chen-Lin C. Kulik,et al.  Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings , 1982 .

[20]  Joshua Aronson.  Improving academic achievement: Impact of psychological factors on education , 2002 .

[21]  Barbara A. Fox.  Cognitive and interactional aspects of correction in tutoring , 1991 .

[22]  Nigel H. Goddard,et al.  Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society , 1993 .

[23]  Elliot Soloway,et al.  The Knowledge Required for Tutorial Planning: An Empirical Analysis , 1990, Interact. Learn. Environ..

[24]  Joshua Aronson,et al.  Improving Academic Achievement , 2002 .

[25]  J. D. Fletcher,et al.  Opportunities for New “Smart” Learning Environments Enabled by Next-Generation Web Capabilities , 2004 .

[26]  Arthur C. Graesser,et al.  Natural Language Tutoring: A comparison of human tutors, computer tutors, and text , 2007 .

[27]  Arthur C. Graesser,et al.  When Are Tutorial Dialogues More Effective Than Reading? , 2007, Cogn. Sci..

[28]  Joseph P. Magliano,et al.  Collaborative dialogue patterns in naturalistic one-to-one tutoring , 1995 .

[29]  Joseph Psotka,et al.  Intelligent tutoring systems : lessons learned , 1988 .

[30]  Jean McKendree,et al.  Effective Feedback Content for Tutoring Complex Skills , 1990, Hum. Comput. Interact..

[31]  Ralph T. Putnam.  Structuring and Adjusting Content for Students: A Study of Live and Simulated Tutoring of Addition , 1987 .

[32]  Mark R. Lepper,et al.  The wisdom of practice: Lessons learned from the study of highly effective tutors. , 2002 .

[33]  J. Gregory Trafton,et al.  Effective Tutoring Techniques: A Comparison of Human Tutors and Intelligent Tutoring Systems , 1992 .