A Review of Current Methods for Analysis of Mycotoxins in Herbal Medicines

The presence of mycotoxins in herbal medicines is an established problem throughout the entire world. The sensitive and accurate analysis of mycotoxin in complicated matrices (e.g., herbs) typically involves challenging sample pretreatment procedures and an efficient detection instrument. However, although numerous reviews have been published regarding the occurrence of mycotoxins in herbal medicines, few of them provided a detailed summary of related analytical methods for mycotoxin determination. This review focuses on analytical techniques including sampling, extraction, cleanup, and detection for mycotoxin determination in herbal medicines established within the past ten years. Dedicated sections of this article address the significant developments in sample preparation, and highlight the importance of this procedure in the analytical technology. This review also summarizes conventional chromatographic techniques for mycotoxin qualification or quantitation, as well as recent studies regarding the development and application of screening assays such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, lateral flow immunoassays, aptamer-based lateral flow assays, and cytometric bead arrays. The present work provides a good insight regarding the advanced research that has been done and closes with an indication of future demand for the emerging technologies.

[1]  M. Zain.  Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals , 2011 .

[2]  Bhanu Prakash,et al.  Fungal and Mycotoxin Contamination of Herbal Raw Materials and Prospects of Higher Plant Products as Plant-Based Preservatives During Post-Harvest Processing , 2014 .

[3]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Simultaneous determination of aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂ in Fructus Bruceae by high-performance liquid chromatography with online postcolumn photochemical derivatization. , 2014, Journal of separation science.

[4]  H. M. Martins,et al.  Aflatoxins in spices marketed in Portugal , 2001, Food additives and contaminants.

[5]  Ka Yip Fung,et al.  Relationship between maceration and extraction yield in the production of Chinese herbal medicine , 2016 .

[6]  Sung-Hye Cho,et al.  Aflatoxins contamination in spices and processed spice products commercialized in Korea , 2008 .

[7]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Development and validation of an accurate and rapid LC-ESI-MS/MS method for the simultaneous quantification of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 in lotus seeds , 2013 .

[8]  Xin Xu,et al.  Colloidal gold based immunochromatographic strip for the simple and sensitive determination of aflatoxin B1 and B2 in corn and rice , 2013, Microchimica Acta.

[9]  Jun Wu,et al.  Determination of Deoxynivalenol in Medicinal Herbs and Related Products by GC–ECD and Confirmation by GC–MS , 2010 .

[10]  Ouyang Zhen.  LC-MS/MS determination of citrinin in traditional Chinese medicines , 2011 .

[11]  Mei-Hua Yang,et al.  Simultaneous Determination of Deoxynivalenol and Nivalenol in Traditional Chinese Medicine by SPE and LC , 2010 .

[12]  C. R. Bradley,et al.  Screening and Initial Binding Assessment of Fumonisin B1 Aptamers , 2010, International journal of molecular sciences.

[13]  U. Solimene,et al.  WHO guidelines for assessing quality of herbal medicines with reference to contaminants and residues , 2007 .

[14]  K. Mosbach,et al.  Molecularly imprinted polymers and their use in biomimetic sensors. , 2000, Chemical reviews.

[15]  J. Blanco,et al.  Solubility and stability of sterigmatocystin in different organic solvents. , 1993, Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

[16]  Meihua Yang,et al.  UFLC-ESI-MS/MS analysis of multiple mycotoxins in medicinal and edible Areca catechu. , 2016, Chemosphere.

[17]  O. S. Olonitola,et al.  Determination of aflatoxin contamination in cassava flour sold in selected markets in Zaria, Kaduna state; Nigeria , 2017 .

[18]  S. Natori,et al.  Structures of chaetoglobosin A and B, cytotoxic metabolites of chaetomium globosum , 1973 .

[19]  N. Balde,et al.  Herbal medicine and treatment of diabetes in Africa: an example from Guinea. , 2006, Diabetes & metabolism.

[20]  Jana Hajslova,et al.  Comparison of two clean-up principles for determination of trichothecenes in grain extract , 1998 .

[21]  Y. Hsu,et al.  Synchronous high-performance liquid chromatography with a photodiode array detector and mass spectrometry for the determination of citrinin, monascin, ankaflavin, and the lactone and acid forms of monacolin K in red mold rice. , 2011, Journal of AOAC International.

[22]  Sayonara Maria Lia Fook Meira Braga,et al.  Development and validation of a method for the quantitative determination of aflatoxin contaminants in Maytenus ilicifolia by HPLC with fluorescence detection. , 2005, Phytochemical analysis : PCA.

[23]  Shaily Goyal,et al.  The Indian Herbal Drugs Scenario in Global Perspectives , 2008 .

[24]  Liangqia Guo,et al.  Microsphere-based flow cytometric immunoassay for the determination of citrinin in red yeast rice. , 2012, Food chemistry.

[25]  Willem Haasnoot,et al.  Development of a multiplex flow cytometric microsphere immunoassay for mycotoxins and evaluation of its application in feed , 2010, Mycotoxin Research.

[26]  G. P. Kononenko,et al.  Distribution of mycotoxins and usnic acid in the thalli of epigeous lichens , 2015, Biology Bulletin.

[27]  Yongjiang Wu,et al.  Multianalysis of 35 mycotoxins in traditional Chinese medicines by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry coupled with accelerated solvent extraction. , 2012, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[28]  Willem Haasnoot,et al.  Immunomagnetic microbeads for screening with flow cytometry and identification with nano-liquid chromatography mass spectrometry of ochratoxins in wheat and cereal , 2011, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[29]  Men Qi-ming.  False positive research on HPLC determining aflatoxin residues in Chinese herbal pieces , 2013 .

[30]  M. Nakajima,et al.  Evaluation of a method to determine the natural occurrence of aflatoxins in commercial traditional herbal medicines from Malaysia and Indonesia. , 2005, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[31]  L Czerwiecki,et al.  [Determination of trichothecenes in cereals]. , 1989, Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny.

[32]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Determination of ochratoxin A in traditional Chinese medicinal plants by HPLC–FLD , 2010, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[33]  Ingars Reinholds,et al.  Mycotoxins, pesticides and toxic metals in commercial spices and herbs , 2017, Food additives & contaminants. Part B, Surveillance.

[34]  Oliveira,et al.  Brazilian Journal of Microbiology (2012): , 2013 .

[35]  Hiroyuki Tsuda,et al.  WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION INTERNATIONAL AGENCY FOR RESEARCH ON CANCER IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans , 2005 .

[36]  Milena Zachariasova,et al.  A rugged high-throughput analytical approach for the determination and quantification of multiple mycotoxins in complex feed matrices. , 2014, Talanta.

[37]  Yongjiang Wu,et al.  An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for simultaneous determination of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2 in traditional Chinese medicines. , 2010, Analytica chimica acta.

[38]  Shuangcheng Ma,et al.  Determination of aflatoxins in medicinal herbs by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. , 2012, Phytochemical analysis : PCA.

[39]  Laura Anfossi,et al.  Lateral-flow immunoassays for mycotoxins and phycotoxins: a review , 2012, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry.

[40]  Dilek Heperkan,et al.  Mycoflora and natural occurrence of aflatoxin, cyclopiazonic acid, fumonisin and ochratoxin A in dried figs , 2012, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[41]  N. K. Dubey,et al.  Fungal Contamination of Raw Materials of Some Herbal Drugs and Recommendation of Cinnamomum camphora Oil as Herbal Fungitoxicant , 2008, Microbial Ecology.

[42]  Isabel M. P. L. V. O. Ferreira,et al.  Quantification of Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 in Pepper by HPLC/Fluorescence , 2004 .

[43]  P. Scott,et al.  Food Additives & Contaminants : Part A : Chemistry , Analysis , Control , Exposure & Risk Assessment , 2012 .

[44]  Gao Wen.  High sensitive method for the detection of aflatoxins in extract from Chinese medicinal herb , 2011 .

[45]  Hani El-Nezami,et al.  Herbal Medicine. Toxicity and Recent Trends in Assessing Their Potential Toxic Effects , 2012 .

[46]  Kwang-Geun Lee,et al.  Analysis of aflatoxins in herbal medicine and health functional foods , 2015 .

[47]  Xiao-He Xiao,et al.  Development of a sensitive and reliable high performance liquid chromatography method with fluorescence detection for high-throughput analysis of multi-class mycotoxins in Coix seed. , 2013, Analytica chimica acta.

[48]  Hyang Sook Chun,et al.  Natural occurrence of aflatoxin B1 in marketed foods and risk estimates of dietary exposure in Koreans. , 2007, Journal of food protection.

[49]  F. Liu,et al.  Application of molecularly imprinted polymers to solid-phase extraction of analytes from real samples. , 2007, Journal of biochemical and biophysical methods.

[50]  Xiulan Sun,et al.  Preparation of gold-labeled antibody probe and its use in immunochromatography assay for detection of aflatoxin B1. , 2005, International journal of food microbiology.

[51]  Mei-hua Yang,et al.  [Contamination level of aflatoxin B1 in lotus seeds rapid screening by indirect competitive ELISA method]. , 2015, Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica.

[52]  V. Ostry,et al.  Alternaria mycotoxins: an overview of chemical characterization, producers, toxicity, analysis and occurrence in foodstuffs , 2008 .

[53]  Willem Haasnoot,et al.  Colour-encoded paramagnetic microbead-based direct inhibition triplex flow cytometric immunoassay for ochratoxin A, fumonisins and zearalenone in cereals and cereal-based feed , 2013, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry.

[54]  X. Le,et al.  Selection and analytical applications of aptamers , 2006 .

[55]  Yang Mei-hua.  Simultaneous determination of zearalenone and α-zearalenol in traditional Chinese medicines by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry , 2011 .

[56]  Michael Rychlik,et al.  Occurrence of enniatins and beauvericin in 60 Chinese medicinal herbs , 2014, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[57]  Meihua Yang,et al.  High-throughput determination of multi-mycotoxins in Chinese yam and related products by ultra fast liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry after one-step extraction. , 2016, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[58]  M. Halt,et al.  Moulds and mycotoxins in herb tea and medicinal plants , 1998, European Journal of Epidemiology.

[59]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Simultaneous determination of aflatoxin B(1) and ochratoxin A in licorice roots and fritillary bulbs by solid-phase extraction coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. , 2013, Food chemistry.

[60]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Assessment of critical points and development of a practical strategy to extend the applicable scope of immunoaffinity column cleanup for aflatoxin detection in medicinal herbs. , 2017, Journal of chromatography. A.

[61]  J. I. Pitt,et al.  Mycotoxins: Deoxynivalenol and Other Trichothecenes , 2014 .

[62]  Min-Gon Kim,et al.  An aptamer-based dipstick assay for the rapid and simple detection of aflatoxin B1. , 2014, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[63]  Á. Czéh,et al.  A flow cytometry based competitive fluorescent microsphere immunoassay (CFIA) system for detecting up to six mycotoxins. , 2012, Journal of immunological methods.

[64]  A. King,et al.  Analysis of the Major Alternaria Toxins. , 1984, Journal of food protection.

[65]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Magnetic microspheres-based cytometric bead array assay for highly sensitive detection of ochratoxin A. , 2017, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[66]  Maryam Jalili,et al.  Natural Occurrence of Aflatoxins Contamination in Commercial Spices in Iran , 2016 .

[67]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Rapid Detection of Ochratoxin A in Malt by Cytometric Bead Array Based on Indirect Competition Principle , 2016 .

[68]  W. Mccrone,et al.  Crystallographic Data. 87. Gliotoxin , 1954 .

[69]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Simultaneous determination of four aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in ginger and related products by HPLC with fluorescence detection after immunoaffinity column clean-up and postcolumn photochemical derivatization. , 2013, Journal of separation science.

[70]  L. Gold,et al.  Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment: RNA ligands to bacteriophage T4 DNA polymerase. , 1990, Science.

[71]  C. Maragos,et al.  Synthesis and evaluation of molecularly imprinted polymers as sorbents of moniliformin , 2007, Food additives and contaminants.

[72]  M. Peraica,et al.  14.07 – Carcinogenic Mycotoxins* , 2010 .

[73]  R. Krska,et al.  The state-of-the-art in the analysis of type-A and -B trichothecene mycotoxins in cereals , 2001, Fresenius' journal of analytical chemistry.

[74]  George A. Bean,et al.  Toxigenic Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxins in Sri Lankan medicinal plant material , 1991, Mycopathologia.

[75]  M. A. Jonker,et al.  Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in food and feed in 2003 , 2004 .

[76]  Herman J. Woerdenbag,et al.  Traditional Chinese herbal medicine , 1995, Pharmacy World and Science.

[77]  Halil Tosun,et al.  Determination of Aflatoxin B1 Levels in Organic Spices and Herbs , 2013, TheScientificWorldJournal.

[78]  Yongjiang Wu,et al.  Multi-walled carbon nanotubes as solid-phase extraction sorbents for simultaneous determination of type A trichothecenes in maize, wheat and rice by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. , 2015, Journal of chromatography. A.

[79]  F. Ricci,et al.  Current methods of analysis for the determination of trichothecene mycotoxins in food , 2011 .

[80]  Hilal Çolak,et al.  Determination of aflatoxin contamination in red-scaled, red and black pepper by ELISA and HPLC , 2020 .

[81]  Antonio Logrieco,et al.  Alternaria toxins and plant diseases: an overview of origin, occurrence and risks , 2009 .

[82]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Aptamer-affinity column clean-up coupled with ultra high performance liquid chromatography and fluorescence detection for the rapid determination of ochratoxin A in ginger powder. , 2014, Journal of separation science.

[83]  Bashir Ahmad,et al.  Evaluation of mycotoxins, mycobiota, and toxigenic fungi in selected medicinal plants of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. , 2014, Fungal biology.

[84]  E. Razzazi-Fazeli,et al.  Contamination of Aflatoxins in Herbal Medicinal Products in Thailand , 2004, Mycopathologia.

[85]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Simultaneous analysis of multiple mycotoxins in Alpinia oxyphylla by UPLC-MS/MS , 2017 .

[86]  R. Bhadauria,et al.  Mycoflora and mycotoxins in some important stored crude and powdered herbal drugs , 2009 .

[87]  Maw-rong Lee,et al.  Supercritical fluid extraction and quantification of aflatoxins in Zizyphi Fructus by liquid chromatography/atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry. , 2007, Rapid communications in mass spectrometry : RCM.

[88]  Norhayati Ali,et al.  Natural occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in processed spices marketed in Malaysia , 2015, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[89]  J. Antignac,et al.  The ion suppression phenomenon in liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry and its consequences in the field of residue analysis , 2005 .

[90]  Sha Dong-xu.  Comparison of two post-column derivatization systems for HPLC determination of aflatoxins in Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium , 2013 .

[91]  Jun Wu,et al.  Determination of T-2 Toxin in Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicines by GC-ECD , 2009 .

[92]  B. Fazekas,et al.  Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A content of spices in Hungary , 2005, Food additives and contaminants.

[93]  Gopal Reddy,et al.  Occurrence of ochratoxin A in black pepper, coriander, ginger and turmeric in India , 2001, Food additives and contaminants.

[94]  Mei-Hua Yang,et al.  Immunoaffinity Column Clean-Up and Liquid Chromatography with Post-Column Derivatization for Analysis of Aflatoxins in Traditional Chinese Medicine , 2005 .

[95]  Tullia Gallina Toschi,et al.  Detection of Fumonisins in Fresh and Dehydrated Commercial Garlic. , 2017, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[96]  Puttaswamy Rajeshwari,et al.  MYCOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND AFLATOXIN B1 CONTAMINANT ESTIMATION OF HERBAL DRUG RAW MATERIALS , 2016, African journal of traditional, complementary, and alternative medicines : AJTCAM.

[97]  Antonio J. Ramos,et al.  Mycotoxin in Medicinal/Aromatic Herbs - a Review , 2013 .

[98]  Shufang Wang,et al.  Simultaneous determination of seventeen mycotoxins residues in Puerariae lobatae radix by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. , 2014, Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis.

[99]  Bashir Ahmad,et al.  Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in medicinal plants: a review. , 2014, Fungal genetics and biology : FG & B.

[100]  Deng Min.  Simultaneous determination of 5 mycotoxins in Chinese patent medicines by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry , 2014 .

[101]  Bo Liu,et al.  Graphene-based materials: fabrication and application for adsorption in analytical chemistry. , 2014, Journal of chromatography. A.

[102]  N. Camper,et al.  Mycotoxins in root extracts of American and Asian ginseng bind estrogen receptors alpha and beta. , 2004, Experimental biology and medicine.

[103]  Jin Li,et al.  [Determination of 10 mycotoxin contaminants in Panax notoginseng by ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry]. , 2015, Yao xue xue bao = Acta pharmaceutica Sinica.

[104]  Meihua Yang,et al.  An aptamer based lateral flow strip for on-site rapid detection of ochratoxin A in Astragalus membranaceus. , 2016, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[105]  T. A. Reis,et al.  Evaluation of fungal burden and aflatoxin presence in packed medicinal plants treated by gamma radiation. , 2010, Journal of food protection.

[106]  Carlo Brera,et al.  Chapter 12 Mycotoxins , 2008 .

[107]  Antonio J. Ramos,et al.  Screening of mycotoxin multicontamination in medicinal and aromatic herbs sampled in Spain , 2009 .

[108]  Mary W Trucksess,et al.  Determination of aflatoxins in botanical roots by a modification of AOAC Official Method 991.31: single-laboratory validation. , 2010, Journal of AOAC International.

[109]  J. Frisvad,et al.  Mycotoxins, drugs and other extrolites produced by species in Penicillium subgenus Penicillium , 2004 .

[110]  Javier Hernández-Borges,et al.  Evolution and applications of the QuEChERS method , 2015 .

[111]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Molecularly imprinted polymer-based solid phase clean-up for analysis of ochratoxin A in ginger and LC-MS/MS confirmation , 2013 .

[112]  V. Lattanzio,et al.  Current analytical methods for trichothecene mycotoxins in cereals , 2009 .

[113]  Zhaowei Zhang,et al.  Advanced hyphenated chromatographic-mass spectrometry in mycotoxin determination: current status and prospects. , 2013, Mass spectrometry reviews.

[114]  Yongjiang Wu,et al.  Iron (II, III) oxide/multi-walled carbon nanotube composite as solid-phase extraction sorbent followed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for simultaneous determination of zearalenone and type A trichothecenes in Salviae miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma (Danshen). , 2017, Journal of chromatography. A.

[115]  Men Qi-ming.  HPLC determination of aflatoxin residues in traditional Chinese medicine Yinpian with post column photochemical derivation and fluorescence detection , 2012 .

[116]  Philip Müller,et al.  Aflatoxin contamination of pods of Indian Cassia senna L. (Caesalpinaceae) before harvest, during drying and in storage: Reasons and possible methods of reduction , 2007 .

[117]  M. Mujeeb,et al.  Determination of aflatoxins in medicinal plants by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. , 2013, Journal of pharmacy & pharmaceutical sciences : a publication of the Canadian Society for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Societe canadienne des sciences pharmaceutiques.

[118]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Multi-class mycotoxins analysis in Angelica sinensis by ultra fast liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. , 2015, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[119]  R. J. Cole,et al.  Tremorgenic toxin from Penicillium veruculosum. , 1972, Applied microbiology.

[120]  Shui Miao,et al.  Multi-mycotoxins analysis in Pheretima using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry based on a modified QuEChERS method. , 2016, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[121]  Gunnar Sundstøl Eriksen,et al.  Penitrem A and analogues: toxicokinetics, toxicodynamics including mechanism of action and clinical significance , 2013 .

[122]  Xuehui Zhang,et al.  Immunoaffinity column cleanup with liquid chromatography using post-column bromination for aflatoxins in medicinal herbs and plant extracts. , 2005, Journal of chromatographic science.

[123]  Christopher A. Pohl,et al.  Accelerated Solvent Extraction: A Technique for Sample Preparation , 1996 .

[124]  Christine Bii,et al.  Risk of Fungi Associated with Aflatoxin and Fumonisin in Medicinal Herbal Products in the Kenyan Market , 2017, TheScientificWorldJournal.

[125]  Jan Bocianowski,et al.  Natural occurrence of fumonisins and ochratoxin A in some herbs and spices commercialized in Poland analyzed by UPLC-MS/MS method. , 2013, Food microbiology.

[126]  Thomas B. Whitaker,et al.  Standardisation of mycotoxin sampling procedures: an urgent necessity , 2003 .

[127]  Steven J Lehotay,et al.  Fast and easy multiresidue method employing acetonitrile extraction/partitioning and "dispersive solid-phase extraction" for the determination of pesticide residues in produce. , 2003, Journal of AOAC International.

[128]  Jin Yue.  A survey of determination of aflatoxin in Chinese materia medicia , 2006 .

[129]  Sarah De Saeger,et al.  Multimycotoxin UPLC-MS/MS for tea, herbal infusions and the derived drinkable products. , 2010, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[130]  Xiaoqian Tang,et al.  Multi-component immunochromatographic assay for simultaneous detection of aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in agro-food. , 2013, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[131]  A. Riba,et al.  Contamination of common spices by aflatoxigenic fungi and aflatoxin B1 in Algeria , 2016 .

[132]  Yongjiang Wu,et al.  A rapid method for simultaneous determination of zearalenone, α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol and β-zearalanol in traditional Chinese medicines by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. , 2011, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[133]  Aniket Gade,et al.  Mycotoxin: rapid detection, differentiation and safety , 2012 .

[134]  R. Lequin.  Enzyme immunoassay (EIA)/enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). , 2005, Clinical chemistry.

[135]  Alan D W Dobson,et al.  Mycotoxins in spices and herbs–An update , 2017, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

[136]  R. W. Detroy,et al.  Patulin , Penicillic Acid , and Other Carcinogenic lactones , 2007 .

[137]  S. Delgado,et al.  Toxigenic microorganisms in medicinal plants used for ritual protection of infants , 2011 .

[138]  Xie Jin.  Determination of aflatoxin(AF) G_2,G_1,B_2 and B_1 in 72 batches of Shujin Huoxue pills by HPLC with post-column photochemical derivation , 2014 .

[139]  Pinkey Khati,et al.  Mycoflora and aflatoxin assessment of crude herbal drugs during storage in Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India , 2014 .

[140]  Jesús Gómez-Catalán,et al.  Determination of aflatoxins in medicinal herbs by HPLC. An efficient method for routine analysis. , 2005, Phytochemical analysis : PCA.

[141]  Chun-Tao Che,et al.  Determination of aflatoxins in Chinese medicinal herbs by high-performance liquid chromatography using immunoaffinity column cleanup Improvement of recovery. , 2006, Journal of chromatography. A.

[142]  Ruoting Zhan,et al.  Simultaneous determination of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, ochratoxin A, and sterigmatocystin in traditional Chinese medicines by LC–MS–MS , 2014, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry.

[143]  Run-Sheng Zheng,et al.  [Determination of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 in armeniacae semen amarum by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry]. , 2013, Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica.

[144]  S. Ruiz-Velasco,et al.  Detection of Aflatoxins, Mutagens and Carcinogens in Black, White andGreen Peppers (Piper Nigrum L.) , 2017 .

[145]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Co-occurrence of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 and ochrotoxin A in Glycyrrhiza uralensis analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS , 2013 .

[146]  Ye Jiang,et al.  Graphene oxide adsorbent based dispersive solid phase extraction coupled with multi-pretreatment clean-up for analysis of trace aflatoxins in traditional proprietary Chinese medicines. , 2017, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[147]  Sang-Keun Oh,et al.  Nation-Based Occurrence and Endogenous Biological Reduction of Mycotoxins in Medicinal Herbs and Spices , 2015, Toxins.

[148]  Joseph M Betz,et al.  Use of multitoxin immunoaffinity columns for determination of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in ginseng and ginger. , 2007, Journal of AOAC International.

[149]  Bao Yu,et al.  Analysis of aflatoxins in traditional Chinese medicines: Classification of analytical method on the basis of matrix variations , 2016, Scientific Reports.

[150]  B. Romagnoli,et al.  Aflatoxins in spices, aromatic herbs, herb-teas and medicinal plants marketed in Italy , 2007 .

[151]  Ana Mornar,et al.  Development of a rapid LC/DAD/FLD/MS(n) method for the simultaneous determination of monacolins and citrinin in red fermented rice products. , 2013, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[152]  Selamat Jinap,et al.  Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Mycotoxins. , 2009, Comprehensive reviews in food science and food safety.

[153]  Terezinha de Jesus Andreoli Pinto,et al.  Occurrence of toxigenic fungi in herbal drugs , 2006 .

[154]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Validation of a gas chromatography-electron capture detection of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in Chinese herbal medicines and related products after immunoaffinity column clean-up and pre-column derivatization. , 2012, Food chemistry.

[155]  R. R. Marquardt,et al.  Mycotoxins in fungal contaminated samples of animal feed from western Canada, 1982-1994. , 1997, Canadian journal of veterinary research = Revue canadienne de recherche veterinaire.

[156]  Xiao-He Xiao,et al.  Simultaneous multi-mycotoxin determination in nutmeg by ultrasound-assisted solid-liquid extraction and immunoaffinity column clean-up coupled with liquid chromatography and on-line post-column photochemical derivatization-fluorescence detection. , 2013, The Analyst.

[157]  M. Haidukowski,et al.  Assessment of toxigenic fungi on Argentinean medicinal herbs. , 2004, Microbiological research.

[158]  Katerina Mastovska,et al.  Mycotoxins in Plant-Based Dietary Supplements: Hidden Health Risk for Consumers. , 2015, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[159]  Jian-Min Chen,et al.  [HPLC analysis of alfatoxins in medicinal herb extracts by immunoaffinity column cleanup and post-column bromination]. , 2005, Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica.

[160]  J. Postupolski,et al.  [Studies and safety evaluation of aflatoxins in herbal plants]. , 2011, Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny.

[161]  Yves-Jacques Schneider,et al.  LC-MS/MS multi-analyte method for mycotoxin determination in food supplements , 2009, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[162]  Won-Bo Shim,et al.  Occurrence of aflatoxins in herbal medicine distributed in South Korea. , 2012, Journal of food protection.

[163]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Application of Nanoparticle Probe-based Lateral Flow Immunochromatographic Assay in Mycotoxins Detection , 2015 .

[164]  Natalia Arroyo-Manzanares,et al.  Multiclass mycotoxin analysis in Silybum marianum by ultra high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry using a procedure based on QuEChERS and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction. , 2013, Journal of chromatography. A.

[165]  Wang Shao-mi.  Determination of patulin in Chinese herbs by UHPLC- triple quadrupole MS with dispersive solid phase extraction , 2014 .

[166]  Alka Mehta,et al.  Prevalence of toxigenic fungi in common medicinal herbs and spices in India , 2016, 3 Biotech.

[167]  Chi-Chuan Wang,et al.  Changes in herb and dietary supplement use in the U.S. adult population: a comparison of the 2002 and 2007 National Health Interview Surveys. , 2011, Clinical therapeutics.

[168]  K. Sargeant,et al.  The assay of a toxic principle in certain groundnut meals. , 1961 .

[169]  Meihua Yang,et al.  [Determination of aflatoxins in nelumbinis semen by immunoaffinity column clean-up and HPLC-FLD with on-line post-column photochemical derivatization and LC-MS/MS confirmation]. , 2012, Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica.

[170]  Hitoshi Nagashima,et al.  Progress in the accuracy of mycotoxin analysis in the last quarter century , 2004 .

[171]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Ultra-fast liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry determination of ochratoxin A in traditional Chinese medicines based on vortex-assisted solid-liquid microextraction and aptamer-affinity column clean-up. , 2014, Journal of separation science.

[172]  S. Cunha,et al.  Mycotoxins in cereals and related foodstuffs: A review on occurrence and recent methods of analysis , 2014 .

[173]  Siniša Tomić,et al.  Contaminants of Medicinal Herbs and Herbal Products , 2009, Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju.

[174]  H. J. GRENVILLE-WELLS,et al.  Crystallographic Data , 1952, Nature.

[175]  Rong Xiao,et al.  Development of an HPLC-Based Method for the Detection of Aflatoxins in Pu-erh Tea , 2015 .

[176]  Dhiraj Kumar,et al.  Mycobiota and Natural Incidence of Aflatoxins, Ochratoxin A, and Citrinin in Indian Spices Confirmed by LC-MS/MS , 2015, International journal of microbiology.

[177]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Multi-mycotoxins analysis in ginger and related products by UHPLC-FLR detection and LC-MS/MS confirmation , 2014 .

[178]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Natural occurrence of citrinin in widely consumed traditional Chinese food red yeast rice, medicinal plants and their related products , 2012 .

[179]  Pinyapach Dungkokkruad,et al.  The Ability of Thai Herbal Household Plant Crude Extracts (Alpinia Galangal) in Growth Inhibition of Mold Aspergillus Flavus and Destruction of AflatoxinB1 , 2017 .

[180]  S. Natori,et al.  X-ray analysis of chaetoglobosin A, an indol-3-yl-[13]cytochalasan from Chaetomium globosum , 1976 .

[181]  Liguang Xu,et al.  An aptamer-based chromatographic strip assay for sensitive toxin semi-quantitative detection. , 2011, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[182]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Determination of zearalenone in barley by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with evaporative light scattering detection and natural occurrence of zearalenone in functional food , 2011 .

[183]  Ling Tong,et al.  Simultaneous qualitative and quantitative analysis of 21 mycotoxins in Radix Paeoniae Alba by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography quadrupole linear ion trap mass spectrometry and QuEChERS for sample preparation. , 2016, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[184]  Zheng Han,et al.  Determination of type A trichothecenes in coix seed by magnetic solid-phase extraction based on magnetic multi-walled carbon nanotubes coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry , 2016, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry.

[185]  Rekha Bhadauria,et al.  Detection of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in medicinally important powdered herbal drugs , 2008 .

[186]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Determination of zearalenone in traditional Chinese medicinal plants and related products by HPLC–FLD , 2011, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[187]  Jin Chang,et al.  Application of upconversion luminescent-magnetic microbeads with weak background noise and facile separation in ochratoxin A detection , 2017, Journal of Nanoparticle Research.

[188]  Michael Rychlik,et al.  Stable isotope dilution assays in mycotoxin analysis , 2008, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[189]  Mei-hua Yang,et al.  [Simultaneous determination of 11 mycotoxins in malt by isotope internal standard-UPLC-MS/MS]. , 2016, Yao xue xue bao = Acta pharmaceutica Sinica.

[190]  Carol Weaver,et al.  Aflatoxins in ginseng roots , 2006, Food additives and contaminants.

[191]  Masoud Sabouri Ghannad,et al.  Determination of aflatoxin B1 levels in Iranian and Indian spices by ELISA method , 2014 .

[192]  Mary W Trucksess,et al.  Sampling and analytical variability associated with the determination of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in bulk lots of powdered ginger marketed in 1-lb bags , 2009, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[193]  Yongjiang Wu,et al.  A reliable isotope dilution method for simultaneous determination of fumonisins B1, B2 and B3 in traditional Chinese medicines by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. , 2010, Journal of separation science.

[194]  Ouyang Zhen,et al.  Latest Advancement for Detection Methods of Mycotoxins in Traditional Chinese Medicine , 2012 .

[195]  Meihua Yang,et al.  Rapid analysis and identification of multi-class mycotoxins in Morinda officinalis by UFLC-ESI-MS/MS , 2015 .

[196]  Jo Ezekwesili-Ofili,et al.  The bioload and aflatoxin content of herbal medicines from selected states in Nigeria. , 2014, African journal of traditional, complementary, and alternative medicines : AJTCAM.

[197]  S. Stockenström,et al.  A preliminary survey of mycological and fumonisin and aflatoxin contamination of African traditional herbal medicines sold in South Africa , 2008, Human & experimental toxicology.

[198]  Meihua Yang,et al.  [Simultaneous determination of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 and ochratoxin A in Glycyrrhiza uralensis by HPLC-fLD after immunoaffinity column with online post-column photochemical derivatization]. , 2011, Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica.