Development of young readers' phonological processing abilities

In a cross-sectional study of 184 kindergarten and 2nd grade students, confirmatory factor analysis of a battery of phonological and control tasks were used to compare alternative models of young readers' phonological processing abilities. We found evidence for 5 distinct but correlated phonological processing abilities. Latent phonological processing abilities were more highly correlated with general cognitive ability than previous reports would suggest, although they accounted for variance in word recognition independent of general cognitive ability. The results of this study, coupled with those of a previous study of prereaders, suggest that phonological abilities are best conceptualized as relatively stable and coherent individual difference attributes, as opposed to relatively unstable measures of reading-related knowledge

[1]  Anthony F Jorm.  Specific reading retardation and working memory: a review. , 1983, British journal of psychology.

[2]  Maryanne Wolf,et al.  Naming Speed and Reading: The Contribution of the Cognitive Neurosciences. , 1991 .

[3]  L. Ehri,et al.  Movement into Reading: Is the First Stage of Printed Word Learning Visual or Phonetic?. , 1985 .

[4]  Keith E. Stanovich,et al.  Intelligence, Cognitive Skills, and Early Reading Progress. , 1984 .

[5]  P. Bentler,et al.  Comparative fit indexes in structural models. , 1990, Psychological bulletin.

[6]  C. Perfetti,et al.  Learning to read : basic research and its implications , 1993 .

[7]  C. Hulme,et al.  A longitudinal case study of developmental phonological dyslexia , 1989 .

[8]  Frank R. Vellutino,et al.  Phonological Coding, Phonological Awareness, and Reading Ability: Evidence from a Longitudinal and Experimental Study. , 1987 .

[9]  James L. McClelland,et al.  A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. , 1989, Psychological review.

[10]  Robert G. Crowder,et al.  The psychology of reading: An introduction , 1982 .

[11]  C. Spring,et al.  Encoding speed, rehearsal, and probed recall of dyslexic boys. , 1974, Journal of educational psychology.

[12]  R. Conrad,et al.  Acoustic confusions in immediate memory. , 1964 .

[13]  J. Torgesen,et al.  Processing deficiencies of learning-disabled children who perform poorly on the Digit Span Test. , 1980, Journal of educational psychology.

[14]  James L. McClelland,et al.  An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 2. The contextual enhancement effect and some tests and extensions of the model. , 1982, Psychological review.

[15]  R. Wagner,et al.  Identifying Phonological Coding Problems in Disabled Readers: Naming, Counting, or Span Measures? , 1990 .

[16]  Glenn M. Kleiman,et al.  Speech recoding in reading , 1975 .

[17]  F. Wood,et al.  Cognitive Deficits in Reading Disability and Attention Deficit Disorder , 1989, Journal of learning disabilities.

[18]  R. Wagner,et al.  The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. , 1987 .

[19]  L. Ehri.  Learning to Read and Spell Words , 1987 .

[20]  V. Mann,et al.  Phonological Awareness and Verbal Short-Term Memory , 1984, Journal of learning disabilities.

[21]  Barbara J. Fox,et al.  Phonological awareness in reading: The evolution of current perspectives. , 1991 .

[22]  P. Bryant,et al.  Difficulties in auditory organisation as a possible cause of reading backwardness , 1978, Nature.

[23]  Charles A. Perfetti,et al.  Phonemic knowledge and learning to read are reciprocal: A longitudinal study of first grade children. , 1987 .

[24]  M. Bruck.  Word-Recognition Skills of Adults with Childhood Diagnoses of Dyslexia. , 1990 .

[25]  C. Spring,et al.  Naming speed and serial recall in poor and adequate readers , 1983 .

[26]  Ragnhild Söderbergh.  Language by ear and by eye , 1975, Journal of Child Language.

[27]  J. Godfrey,et al.  Performance of dyslexic children on speech perception tests. , 1981, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[28]  Linnea C. Ehri,et al.  The influence of orthography on readers' conceptualization of the phonemic structure of words , 1980, Applied Psycholinguistics.

[29]  B. Tabachnick,et al.  Using Multivariate Statistics , 1983 .

[30]  R. W. Barron.  Word recognition in early reading: A review of the direct and indirect access hypotheses , 1986, Cognition.

[31]  K. Stanovich.  Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. , 1986 .

[32]  F. Manis,et al.  Variation in component word recognition and spelling skills among dyslexic children and normal readers. , 1990 .

[33]  Keith E. Stanovich,et al.  Assessing phonological awareness in kindergarten children: Issues of task comparability , 1984 .

[34]  J. Sattler.  Assessment of Children , 1992 .

[35]  R. Wagner.  Phonological Processing Abilities and Reading , 1986, Journal of learning disabilities.

[36]  W. Tunmer,et al.  Phonemic segmentation skill and beginning reading. , 1985 .

[37]  J. Torgesen.  Cognitive and Behavioral Characteristics of Children with Learning Disabilities , 1989, Journal of learning disabilities.

[38]  D. Goldstein,et al.  Cognitive-Linguistic Functioning and Learning to Read in Preschoolers. , 1976 .

[39]  D. Share,et al.  Sources of Individual Differences in Reading Acquisition. , 1984 .

[40]  M. Maclean.  Rhymes, nursery rhymes, and reading in early childhood. , 1987 .

[41]  Ellen Bouchard Ryan,et al.  Development of grammatical-sensitivity, phonological, and short-term memory skills in normally achieving and learning disabled children , 1988 .

[42]  Hallie Kay Yopp,et al.  The validity and reliability of phonemic awareness tests. , 1988 .

[43]  Richard K. Olson,et al.  Organization, heritability, and remediation of component word recognition and language skills in disabled readers. , 1990 .

[44]  Richard K. Wagner,et al.  Causal relations between the development of phonological processing abilities and the acquisition of reading skills: A meta-analysis. , 1988 .

[45]  Ingvar Lundberg,et al.  Reading and spelling skills in the first school years predicted from phonemic awareness skills in kindergarten , 1980 .

[46]  R. Treiman,et al.  Phonemic-analysis training helps children benefit from spelling-sound rules , 1983, Memory & cognition.

[47]  R. Wagner,et al.  The nature of prereaders' phonological processing abilities , 1987 .

[48]  James L. McClelland,et al.  An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: I. An account of basic findings. , 1981 .

[49]  Patricia Greig Bowers,et al.  Comparison of the Effects of IQ Control Methods on Memory and Naming Speed Predictors of Reading Disability. , 1988 .

[50]  J. Sattler.  Assessment of children, 3rd ed. , 1988 .

[51]  John Davis,et al.  Relations of digit naming speed with three components of reading , 1988, Applied Psycholinguistics.

[52]  Lynn S. Fuchs,et al.  The Journal Of Special Education , 1993 .

[53]  V. Mann,et al.  Longitudinal prediction and prevention of early reading difficulty , 1984, Annals of dyslexia.

[54]  Joseph K. Torgesen,et al.  CHAPTER 1 – Learning Disabilities: Historical and Conceptual Issues , 1991 .

[55]  Max Coltheart,et al.  Access to the internal lexicon , 1977 .

[56]  R. Wagner,et al.  Developmental and individual differences in performance on phonological synthesis tasks. , 1989, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[57]  B. Byrne,et al.  Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. , 1989 .

[58]  Nancy K. Lewkowicz.  Phonemic Awareness Training: What to Teach and How To Teach It. , 1980 .

[59]  R. Treiman.  Phonological Awareness and Its Roles in Learning to Read and Spell , 1991 .

[60]  E. W. Ball,et al.  Phoneme segmentation training: Effect on reading readiness , 1988, Annals of dyslexia.

[61]  K. Rayner,et al.  The psychology of reading , 1989 .

[62]  P. Bryant,et al.  Rhyme, rime, and the onset of reading. , 1989, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[63]  C. Spring.  Encoding Speed and Memory Span in Dyslexic Children , 1976 .

[64]  U. Goswami.  Children's use of analogy in learning to read: A developmental study , 1986 .

[65]  D. Fulker,et al.  Specific Deficits in Component Reading and Language Skills , 1989, Journal of learning disabilities.

[66]  P. Bryant,et al.  Nursery rhymes, phonological skills and reading , 1989, Journal of Child Language.

[67]  Joseph K. Torgesen,et al.  Effects of two types of phonological awareness training on word learning in kindergarten children. , 1992 .

[68]  U. Goswami.  Orthographic Analogies and Reading Development , 1988 .

[69]  R Treiman,et al.  Phonological awareness and spelling in normal children and dyslexics: the case of initial consonant clusters. , 1990, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[70]  J. Torgesen,et al.  Component processes in working memory. , 1987 .

[71]  Larry A. Harris,et al.  Woodcock reading mastery tests: Woodcock, R. Circle Pines, Minn.: American Guidance Service, 1974. Form A or B: $18 , 1976 .

[72]  Alan D. Baddeley,et al.  Reading and Working Memory. , 1982 .

[73]  D. Shankweiler,et al.  Explicit Syllable and Phoneme Segmentation in the Young Child , 1974 .

[74]  Keith E. Stanovich,et al.  Discrepancy definitions of reading disability: Has intelligence led us astray? Reading Research Quar , 1991 .

[75]  Betty Ann Levy,et al.  Reading and Its Development: Component Skills Approaches , 1990 .

[76]  Ingvar Lundberg,et al.  Effects of an Extensive Program for Stimulating Phonological Awareness in Preschool Children. , 1988 .

[77]  Marilyn Jager Adams,et al.  Beginning To Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. , 1991 .

[78]  Anthony F. Jorm,et al.  An invited article: Phonological recoding and reading acquisition , 1983, Applied Psycholinguistics.

[79]  K. Stanovich.  The right and wrong places to look for the cognitive locus of reading disability , 1988, Annals of dyslexia.

[80]  Lynette Bradley,et al.  Rhyme and reason in reading and spelling , 1985 .

[81]  Joseph K. Torgesen,et al.  Psychological and Educational Perspectives on Learning Disabilities , 1985 .

[82]  P. Bowers,et al.  Naming speed deficits in reading disability: multiple measures of a singular process. , 1991, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[83]  Charles Hulme,et al.  Speech Rate and the Development of Short-Term Memory Span. , 1984 .

[84]  G. C. Orden,et al.  What is the causal relation between verbal STM problems and dyslexia , 1991 .

[85]  J. Baron,et al.  Use of orthographic and word-specific knowledge in reading words aloud. , 1976 .