Scaling vectors of attoJoule per bit modulators

Electro-optic modulation performs the conversion between the electrical and optical domain with applications in data communication for optical interconnects, but also for novel optical computing algorithms such as providing nonlinearity at the output stage of optical perceptrons in neuromorphic analog optical computing. While resembling an optical transistor, the weak light– matter-interaction makes modulators 10 times larger compared to their electronic counterparts. Since the clock frequency for photonics on-chip has a power-overhead sweet-spot around tens of GHz, ultrafast modulation may only be required in long-distance communication, not for short on-chip links. Hence, the search is open for power-efficient on-chip modulators beyond the solutions offered by foundries to date. Here, we show scaling vectors towards atto-Joule per bit efficient modulators on-chip as well as some experimental demonstrations of novel plasmonic modulators with sub-fJ/bit efficiencies. Our parametric study of placing different actively modulated materials into plasmonic versus photonic optical modes shows that 2D materials overcompensate their miniscule modal overlap by their unity-high index change. Furthermore, we reveal that the metal used in plasmonic-based modulators not only serves as an electrical contact, but also enables low electrical series resistances leading to near-ideal capacitors. We then discuss the first experimental demonstration of a photon-plasmon-hybrid graphene-based electro-absorption modulator on silicon. The device shows a sub-1 V steep switching enabled by near-ideal electrostatics delivering a high 0.05 dB V μm performance requiring only 110 aJ/ bit. Improving on this demonstration, we discuss a plasmonic slot-based graphene modulator design, where the polarization of the plasmonic mode aligns with graphene’s in-plane dimension; where a push–pull dual-gating scheme enables 2 dB V μm efficient modulation allowing the device to be just 770 nm short for 3 dB small signal modulation. Lastly, comparing the switching energy of transistors to modulators shows that modulators based on emerging materials and plasmonic-silicon hybrid integration perform on-par relative to their electronic counter parts. This in turn allows for a device-enabled two orders-of-magnitude improvement of electrical-optical co-integrated network-on-chips over electronic-only architectures. The latter opens technological opportunities in cognitive computing, dynamic data-driven applications systems, and optical analog computer engines including neuromorphic photonic computing. Journal of Optics J. Opt. 20 (2018) 014012 (16pp) https://doi.org/10.1088/2040-8986/aa9e11 4 This article belongs to the special issue: Emerging Leaders, which features invited work from the best early-career researchers working within the scope of the Journal of Optics. Professor Volker Sorger was selected by the Editorial Board of the Journal of Optics as an Emerging Leader. 2040-8978/18/014012+16$33.00 © 2017 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK 1