Interactivity of Question Prompts and Feedback on Secondary Students' Science Knowledge Acquisition and Cognitive Load

Introduction Problem solving is an essential 21st century skill (Trilling & Fadel, 2009), and is continuously incorporated as an integral part of school curricula (Barron, 2000; Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Qin, Johnson, & Johnson, 1995). As web-based learning becomes the mainstream in many educational settings, it is increasingly important to adopt research-based guidelines to design effective web-based instruction for problem solving. Two research foci have become prominent: scaffolding and cognitive load. Scaffolding research focuses on designing tools and strategies that provide learners with optimal support as they work on learning tasks. A large body of research investigated the scaffolding of open-ended or ill-structured problem solving (e.g., Chen, 2010; Davis, 2000). Closely related to scaffolding is the provision of feedback to students' performance as a way to support learning (e.g., Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, & Morgan, 1991; Corbalan, Kester, & van Merrienboer, 2009). Cognitive load theories approach the design of web-based learning from a different angle. Focusing on making optimal use of humans' limited working memory, cognitive load theorists have identified design principles and guidelines that minimize extraneous cognitive load while focusing learners' cognitive resources on tasks directly related to learning (Sweller, 2010; Sweller, Ayres & Kalyuga, 2011). While the two lines of research relate to each other, they do not intersect much in the research literature. Presumably, scaffolding which is intended to support problem solving should help to streamline learners' cognitive processes and facilitate schema construction. Yet existing research appears to cast some doubts on such a presumption (e.g., Chen, Wu, & Jen, 2013; Ge, Chen, & Davis, 2005; Hwang, Kuo, Chen, & Ho, 2014). Therefore, this study set out to implement scaffolding and feedback in a web-based learning environment to support students' problem solving in science, for the purpose of examining how scaffolding and feedback impact learners' cognitive load as well as knowledge acquisition. Theoretical framework Scaffolding problem solving in science Solving problems is an essential practice in the disciplines of science. Polya (1957) proposed an influential model to characterize a four-step process in problem solving: understanding the problem, planning a solution, executing the plan, and checking the result. In the context of solving a science problem, the process involves identifying relevant information in the problem, determining known and unknown concepts, selecting rules or principles applicable to the problem, applying rules or principles, and ensuring that a satisfactory solution is reached (Jonassen, 2000; Simon, 1978). In other words, learners are in on the active construction, manipulation, and testing of mental models of the problem (Jonassen, 2011). While problem-solving processes are known to researchers and intuitive to skillful problem solvers, students are often not strategic in their problem-solving approaches. Instead of taking time to comprehend a problem and build a conceptual model of it, learners often jump quickly to solutions (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). As such, researchers have employed various strategies to scaffold students through the problem-solving process (Arnau, Arevalillo-Herraez, Puig, & Gonzalez-Calero, 2013; Fund, 2007; Palinscar, 1986; Rosenshine & Meister, 1992; Rosenshine, Meister, & Chapman, 1996; van Merrienboer, Kirschner, & Kester, 2003). Question prompting is a frequently used approach to scaffolding learners' problem solving (e.g., Chen, 2010; Ge, Chen, & Davis, 2005; Saye & Brush, 2002). By presenting questions to students, question prompts focus students' attention on relevant aspects of problem solving and guide them through the process. Numerous studies have found the effectiveness of question prompts in promoting problem solving, knowledge acquisition, and metacognition (Davis, 2000; Rae, Schellens, Wever, & Vanderhoven, 2012; Zydney, 2010). …

[1]  David H. Jonassen,et al.  Toward a design theory of problem solving , 2000 .

[2]  Michael E. Lantz,et al.  Effectiveness of clickers: Effect of feedback and the timing of questions on learning , 2014, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[3]  Robert K. Atkinson,et al.  Animated agents and learning: Does the type of verbal feedback they provide matter? , 2013, Comput. Educ..

[4]  Thomas Brush,et al.  Scaffolding critical reasoning about history and social issues in multimedia-supported learning environments , 2002 .

[5]  Douglas B. Clark,et al.  Integrating self-explanation functionality into a complex game environment: Keeping gaming in motion , 2014, Comput. Educ..

[6]  John Sweller,et al.  Cognitive Load Theory: Instructional Implications of the Interaction between Information Structures and Cognitive Architecture , 2004 .

[7]  Annelies Raes,et al.  Scaffolding information problem solving in web-based collaborative inquiry learning , 2012, Comput. Educ..

[8]  Johan van Braak,et al.  Supporting self-regulated learning in computer-based learning environments: systematic review of effects of scaffolding in the domain of science education , 2012, J. Comput. Assist. Learn..

[9]  R. Moreno.  Decreasing Cognitive Load for Novice Students: Effects of Explanatory versus Corrective Feedback in Discovery-Based Multimedia , 2004 .

[10]  Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar,et al.  The Role of Dialogue in Providing Scaffolded Instruction , 1986 .

[11]  Chen-Lin C. Kulik,et al.  The Instructional Effect of Feedback in Test-Like Events , 1991 .

[12]  R. Bjork,et al.  Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. , 2009, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[13]  David W. Johnson,et al.  Cooperative Versus Competitive Efforts and Problem Solving , 1995 .

[14]  Janet Mannheimer Zydney.  The effect of multiple scaffolding tools on students' understanding, consideration of different perspectives, and misconceptions of a complex problem , 2010, Comput. Educ..

[15]  Susan Pedersen,et al.  Scaffolding middle school students’ content knowledge and ill-structured problem solving in a problem-based hypermedia learning environment , 2010 .

[16]  Bernard P. Veldkamp,et al.  Effects of feedback in a computer-based assessment for learning , 2012, Comput. Educ..

[17]  Hans Cuypers,et al.  Computer-based feedback in linear algebra: Effects on transfer performance and motivation , 2010, Comput. Educ..

[18]  Slava Kalyuga.  Expertise Reversal Effect and Its Implications for Learner-Tailored Instruction , 2007 .

[19]  D. Hestenes,et al.  Force concept inventory , 1992 .

[20]  P. Chandler,et al.  Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction , 1991 .

[21]  B. Rosenshine,et al.  Teaching Students to Generate Questions: A Review of the Intervention Studies , 1996 .

[22]  T. Gog,et al.  Optimising worked example instruction: Different ways to increase germane cognitive load. , 2006 .

[23]  Krista E. DeLeeuw,et al.  A Comparison of Three Measures of Cognitive Load: Evidence for Separable Measures of Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Load , 2008 .

[24]  Michael J. Hannafin,et al.  Scaffolding 6th graders’ problem solving in technology-enhanced science classrooms: a qualitative case study , 2011 .

[25]  John Sweller,et al.  Cognitive Load Theory , 2020, Encyclopedia of Education and Information Technologies.

[26]  G. Wiggins.  Creating Tests Worth Taking. , 1992 .

[27]  P. Kirschner,et al.  Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning , 2003 .

[28]  Herbert A. Simon,et al.  Information-Processing Theory of Human Problem Solving , 1978 .

[29]  Ann L. Brown,et al.  How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. , 1999 .

[30]  Nian-Shing Chen,et al.  Effects of an integrated concept mapping and web-based problem-solving approach on students' learning achievements, perceptions and cognitive loads , 2014, Comput. Educ..

[31]  C. Hmelo‐Silver,et al.  Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) , 2007 .

[32]  Zoltan Dienes,et al.  Explicit feedback maintains implicit knowledge , 2013, Consciousness and Cognition.

[33]  Katharina Scheiter,et al.  Explaining the split-attention effect: Is the reduction of extraneous cognitive load accompanied by an increase in germane cognitive load? , 2009, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[34]  Elizabeth A. Davis,et al.  Scaffolding students' knowledge integration: prompts for reflection in KIE , 2000 .

[35]  Richard Catrambone,et al.  Designing Instructional Examples to Reduce Intrinsic Cognitive Load: Molar versus Modular Presentation of Solution Procedures , 2004 .

[36]  W. Brewer,et al.  Mental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change in childhood , 1992, Cognitive Psychology.

[37]  W. Robinson,et al.  Teaching Science Problem Solving: An Overview of Experimental Work , 2001 .

[38]  C. W. Tate.  Solve it. , 2005, Nursing standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain) : 1987).

[39]  Jean-Michel Boucheix,et al.  What animated illustrations conditions can improve technical document comprehension in young students? Format, signaling and control of the presentation , 2005 .

[40]  W. Schnotz,et al.  A Reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory , 2007 .

[41]  David Arnau,et al.  Fundamentals of the design and the operation of an intelligent tutoring system for the learning of the arithmetical and algebraic way of solving word problems , 2013, Comput. Educ..

[42]  Zvia Fund,et al.  The effects of scaffolded computerized science problem-solving on achievement outcomes: a comparative study of support programs , 2007, J. Comput. Assist. Learn..

[43]  J. Sweller.  Element Interactivity and Intrinsic, Extraneous, and Germane Cognitive Load , 2010 .

[44]  Liesbeth Kester,et al.  Dynamic task selection: Effects of feedback and learner control on efficiency and motivation , 2009 .

[45]  Brigid Barron,et al.  Problem Solving in Video-based Microworlds: Collaborative and Individual Outcomes of High-Achieving Sixth-Grade Students. , 2000 .

[46]  Charles H. Shea,et al.  Understanding the role of augmented feedback : The good, the bad and the ugly , 2004 .

[47]  Katherine A Rawson,et al.  When is guessing incorrectly better than studying for enhancing memory? , 2012, Psychonomic bulletin & review.

[48]  Charles K. Fadel,et al.  21st Century Skills: Learning for Life in Our Times , 2009 .

[49]  The effects of static and adaptive performance feedback in game-based training , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[50]  J. Sweller.  COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY, LEARNING DIFFICULTY, AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN , 1994 .

[51]  K. Engle.  Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to Medical Education , 1981 .

[52]  Bernard P. Veldkamp,et al.  Attention paid to feedback provided by a computer-based assessment for learning on information literacy , 2011, Comput. Educ..

[53]  Z. Dienes,et al.  The conscious, the unconscious, and familiarity. , 2008, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[54]  T. Yeh,et al.  Exploring the Impact of Prior Knowledge and Appropriate Feedback on Students' Perceived Cognitive Load and Learning Outcomes: Animation-based earthquakes instruction , 2012 .

[55]  Matthew L. Miller,et al.  Feedback Types in Programmed Instruction: A Systematic Review , 2007 .

[56]  Ching-Huei Chen,et al.  Designing online scaffolds for interactive computer simulation , 2013, Interact. Learn. Environ..

[57]  Barbara L. Grabowski,et al.  Improving self-regulation, learning strategy use, and achievement with metacognitive feedback , 2010 .

[58]  Susan M. Land,et al.  A conceptual framework for scaffolding III-structured problem-solving processes using question prompts and peer interactions , 2004 .

[59]  Slava Kalyuga,et al.  The Expertise Reversal Effect , 2003 .

[60]  Ching-Huei Chen,et al.  Promoting college students' knowledge acquisition and ill-structured problem solving: Web-based integration and procedure prompts , 2010, Comput. Educ..

[61]  Susan M. Land,et al.  Scaffolding students’ problem-solving processes in an ill-structured task using question prompts and peer interactions , 2003 .

[62]  A. Williams,et al.  Skill acquisition in sport: Research, theory and practice , 2005, Sport & Exercise Psychology Review.

[63]  Xun Ge,et al.  Scaffolding Novice Instructional Designers' Problem-Solving Processes Using Question Prompts in a Web-Based Learning Environment , 2005 .

[64]  Aidan Moran,et al.  Skill Acquisition in Sport , 2012 .