Living diversity: Developing a typology of consumer cultural orientations in culturally diverse marketplaces: Consequences for consumption

This paper argues that in culturally diverse environments cultural identity transitions are more complex than conceptualized by previous research and pertain equally to locally-born (mainstream) and migrant populations. We conceptualize a Typology of Consumer Cultural Orientations as explanatory framework for ethnic consumption and subsequently apply it in an empirical study. The findings indicate that through differential deployment of local, global and foreign cultures affinities for identity negotiation, mainstream and migrant consumers alike can develop or maintain uni-, biand multicultural orientations and use these orientations as informants of their consumption choices. Our findings suggest that the study of consumption implications of cultural diversity should be extended beyond mainstream/migrant differentiation which loses its significance in today’s globalized world. Complexities of cultural identity have been identified in studies on mainstream (i.e., locally born) populations (Jamal 2003) and migrant groups (Askegaard, Arnould, and Kjeldgaard 2005). In today’s global world, mainstream and migrant individuals can develop affinities (i.e., affective attachment) with cultures and lifestyles through direct (travel, co-residence) and indirect (media, trade) experiences with these cultures’ representatives. These affinities can take form of attachment to specific foreign cultures (Oberecker and Diamantopoulous 2010; Luna, Rindberg and Perracchio 2008) or general openness to foreign experiences as representations of global living (Thompson and Tambyah 1999), positively affecting consumption decisions towards products associated with the affinity culture (Oberecker et al, 2008). While previous studies provide valuable insights into how a specific type of culture (local, global or foreign) is internalized in identities of either mainstream or migrant consumers, we argue that to broaden our understanding of the cultural drivers of consumption, research needs to move away from a mainstream/migrant paradigm. In culturally diverse environments (i.e., societies where multiple cultures co-exist) a large diversity of cultural influences as lifestyle options is opened to and experienced simultaneously by both mainstream and migrant consumers alike. This leads individuals from both groups to negotiate their identities through concurrent evaluation of these options’ plurality (Kjeldgaard and Askegaard 2006). Perceptions of the surrounding cultural experiences evolved through this evaluation transform cultural orientations such that one, two or more types of cultures can be internalized by individuals irrespective of their ethnic belonging and have a differential affect on their consumption choices (Cayla and Eckhardt, 2008; Askegaard et al 2005). Hence, a broader conceptualization of cultural identity development in culturally diverse environments is required to account for the multilateral nature of cultural adaptation (Luedicke 2011). In this paper we explore what forms of cultural identities emerge through individuals’ contacts with multiple cultures in culturally diverse environments, and whether the diversity of cultures internalized by individuals leads to differential effects in people’s perception and interpretation of consumption experiences. We developed a Typology of Consumer Cultural Orientations integrating research on cultural identities of mainstream consumers with that on cultural identity transitions of migrant consumers. The typology posits seven hypothesized types of uni-, biand multicultural orientations individuals may develop through simultaneous evaluation of three main types of cultures (local, global and foreign) as distinct options of being in a marketplace. To support our theoretical extrapolations, we then conducted a multi-country exploratory study, which indicates that cultural orientations of individuals in culturally diverse environments may take forms that are different from and more complex than those identified by past research. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Local, Global, and Foreign cultures’ affinities as components of cultural orientations Before developing a typology of consumer cultural orientations, we engaged in clarifying the meanings of its three main components, local, global and foreign cultures, to ensure applicability to both mainstream and migrant consumer contexts. In societies with an increasingly heterogenic demographic make-up, the meaning of ‘locality’ and ‘local’ is difficult to grasp (Murray, 2007). A general understanding has evolved that the meaning of localness is required to be grounded with the culture originating from the locale of one’s residence (Roudometof, 2005; Korff 2003). Consumption-wise, the meaning of ‘localness’ has been identified to derive either from a given brand being perceived as produced within the boundaries of a give locale, or as adopting cultural symbols that originate from and uniquely characterize a given locale (Kipnis et al., 2012). Conceptions of ‘foreignness’ and ‘globalness’ also call for clarification. Whilst the meaning of ‘global’ takes its origins in “Western imaginary” (Cayla & Arnould, 2008, p.88), it evolved from Western cultural reality gaze into a truly-global gaze (Iwabuchi 2002), and is equally deployed by Western and non-Western entities. For example, Cayla and Eckhardt (2008) show that global culture referents are deployed by regional Asian brands, while Steenkamp et al. (2003) demonstrate that a Western-origin (Dutch) Frito-Lay changed the name of the “leading potato chip brand from Smiths to Lay’s” (p.53) to generate the meaning of globalness. At the same time, Leclerc et al. (1994) give examples of Western brands that encapsulate meanings of particular ‘foreignness’ (i.e., Giorgio St. Angelo – Italian culture; Häagen Dazs – Danish culture). Individuals may consume a range of Western and non-Western foreign produce assigned with the meaning of ‘globalness’ to draw from global standards of lifestyle excellence and/or materialize attachment to a particular Western and nonWestern foreign cultures through consumption of produce assigned with a meaning of particular ‘foreignness’ (Cannon and Yaprak 2002; Eckhardt and Mahi 2004). We argue that to understand how foreign and global culture(s) affinities are internalized as distinct facets of identity, it is important to clarify that in culturally diverse societies the meaning of ‘foreignness’ can encapsulate cultures which, although represented in a given locale by media, residing ethnic groups, brands, are distinctly different from the local culture originating from this locale. Thus, we define the focal types of cultural influences present in the culturally diverse environment as: 428 / Living Diversity: Developing a Typology of Consumer Cultural Orientations inCulturally Diverse Marketplaces: Consequences for Consumption 1. Global culture (GC) – a homogenic set of values, beliefs, lifestyle and symbols shared in a unified manner by individuals across countries. 2. Local culture (LC) – ways of life and systems of values, beliefs and symbols considered originating from, unique to and mainstream in the country of residence (for example, in France – French culture). 3. Foreign culture(s) (FC) – a system of values, beliefs and symbols that comes from a definable cultural source(s) (country or cultural group) and is different from local culture. Conceptualizing a typology of Uni, Biand Multi Cultural Orientations To account for consumers’ interaction with a multitude of cultural influences while jointly considering mainstream and migrant consumers, we integrated the existing evidence on cultural affiliations of mainstream and migrant individuals from a perspective of all key cultural influences (Global, Local and Foreign) and developed a Typology of Consumer Cultural Orientations (CCO Typology presented in Table 1). The Typology posits uni-, biand multicultural orientations that may be developed by individuals that formed basis of our empirical study. Our theoretical extrapolations through which orientations were hypothesized are briefly discussed below. Unicultural orientations. Migrant consumption literature reports strong LC affinities as ‘assimilation’, the rejection of the culture of ethnic origin over the new culture of residence (Peñaloza, 1989; Palumbo & Teich, 2003). Strong LC affiliations of mainstream populations are also identified in the international marketing literature as ‘localizm’ (Crane, 2002; Reardon , Miller, Vida, & Kim, 2005). Hence, LC affinities are defined as Local Orientation in our Typology. Similarly, the Global Orientation encompasses GC affinities described by both streams of research (Alden et al., 2006; Strizhakova et al., 2008, Thompson & Tambyah, 1999). When considering affiliation with foreign culture(s), literature on mainstream groups notes that some individuals hold affinities with a culture of a particular foreign country due to this culture’s positive, at times idealistic, stereotyping (Perlmutter, 1954; Kent & Burnight, 1951). Similarly, Jimenez (2010) identifies that individuals may develop affinities with a culture of a particular ethnic group that is not connected to one through heritage or ancestry. In parallel, literature on migrants refers to such processes as ‘separation’, individuals rejecting all other types of culture that surround them and maintaining a strong affiliation with the culture of their ethnic origin (Wallendorf and Reilly, 1983; Luna & Peracchio, 2005). Notably, many migrants, once established in a new country of residence, may be engaged in cultural exchange with non-heritage cultures similarly to mainstream population, through direct and indirect contact with these cultures’ Table 1 Consumer Cultural Orientations Typology Type of Cultural Orientation Definition Literature sources Mainstream (non-migrant) groups Migrant and Ethnic groups Local Orientation Individual’s affiliation with his mainstream culture of resi