Process and Structure in Leader-Member Exchange

Theory supporting the key premise of the leader-member exchange (LMX) approach to leadership, that leaders differentiate between subordinates, has not been fully developed. We address this deficiency by (a) returning LMX research to its historical roots in exchange processes by introducing a framework for understanding relationship quality that is based on reciprocity, and (b) extending the traditional domain of LMX research beyond the formal leader-subordinate relationship in order to offer a more complete explanation of the differentiation process. We employ insights derived from social network analysis to describe how social structure facilitates the exchange processes through which leaders assist in incorporating some members into the inner life of an organization but exclude others.

[1]  D. Krackhardt,et al.  Bringing the Individual Back in: A Structural Analysis of the Internal Market for Reputation in Organizations , 1994 .

[2]  Robert C. Liden,et al.  A longitudinal study on the early development of leader-member exchanges. , 1993 .

[3]  G. Graen,et al.  Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. , 1987 .

[4]  Frances J. Milliken,et al.  Searching for Common Threads: Understanding the Multiple Effects of Diversity in Organizational Groups , 1996 .

[5]  A. Tsui,et al.  Beyond Simple Demographic Effects: The Importance of Relational Demography in Superior-Subordinate Dyads , 1989 .

[6]  Daniel J. Brass.  Being in the right place: A structural analysis of individual influence in an organization. , 1984 .

[7]  Noah E. Friedkin.  Structural bases of interpersonal influence in groups: a longitudinal case study , 1993 .

[8]  M. Mizruchi.  Cohesion, equivalence, and similarity of behavior: a theoretical and empirical assessment , 1993 .

[9]  John K. Butler.  Toward Understanding and Measuring Conditions of Trust: Evolution of a Conditions of Trust Inventory , 1991 .

[10]  S. Jackson,et al.  Some differences make a difference: Individual dissimilarity and group heterogeneity as correlates of recruitment, promotions, and turnover. , 1991 .

[11]  Neville T. Duarte,et al.  Effects of Dyadic Quality and Duration on Performance Appraisal , 1994 .

[12]  Mark S. Granovetter.  The Strength of Weak Ties , 1973, American Journal of Sociology.

[13]  R. Merton.  The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy , 1948 .

[14]  K. Cook,et al.  Two Approaches to Social Structure: Exchange Theory and Network Analysis , 1992 .

[15]  Arthur G. Bedeian,et al.  Leader-follower exchange quality: the role of personal and interpersonal attributes. , 1994 .

[16]  Steven B. Andrews,et al.  Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition , 1995, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Research Design.

[17]  Noah E. Friedkin,et al.  Network Studies of Social Influence , 1993 .

[18]  W. Whitely,et al.  The Relationship of Career Mentoring to Early Career Outcomes , 1993 .

[19]  Daniel J. Brass,et al.  POTENTIAL POWER AND POWER USE: AN INVESTIGATION OF STRUCTURE AND BEHAVIOR , 1993 .

[20]  R. Burt,et al.  Applied Network Analysis: A Methodological Introduction , 1983 .

[21]  P. Blau.  Exchange and Power in Social Life , 1964 .

[22]  R. Eisenberger,et al.  Perceived Organizational Support and Employee Diligence, Commitment, and Innovation , 1990 .

[23]  R. E. Miles,et al.  Organizations: New Concepts for New Forms , 1986 .

[24]  Paul S. Goodman,et al.  Understanding groups in organizations. , 1987 .

[25]  S. D. Berkowitz,et al.  Social Structures: A Network Approach , 1989 .

[26]  M. Konovsky,et al.  Citizenship Behavior and Social Exchange , 1994 .

[27]  Thomas W. Dougherty,et al.  CORRELATES OF CAREER-ORIENTED MENTORING FOR EARLY CAREER MANAGERS AND PROFESSIONALS. , 1992 .

[28]  Stuart M. Schmidt,et al.  Upward-influence styles: Relationship with performance evaluations, salary, and stress. , 1988 .

[29]  T. Newcomb.  The acquaintance process , 1961 .

[30]  J. Ormel,et al.  The measurement of reciprocity in ego-centered networks of personal relationships: A comparison of different indices , 1991 .

[31]  M. Petty,et al.  Team-Member Exchange Under Team and Traditional Management , 1995 .

[32]  J. Lincoln,et al.  Work and Friendship Ties in Organizations: A Comparative Analysis of Relational Networks , 1979 .

[33]  G. Graen,et al.  A Role-Making Model of Leadership in Formal Organizations: A Developmental Approach , 1975 .

[34]  Ronald A. Ash,et al.  A comparative study of mentoring among men and women in managerial, professional, and technical positions. , 1990 .

[35]  John Van Maanen,et al.  Police organization: A longitudinal examination of job attitudes in an urban police department. , 1975 .

[36]  Daniel J. McAllister.  Affect- and Cognition-Based Trust as Foundations for Interpersonal Cooperation in Organizations , 1995 .

[37]  David D. Van Fleet,et al.  Theory and research on leadership in organizations. , 1992 .

[38]  Mark S. Granovetter.  Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers , 1974 .

[39]  Chester A. Schriesheim,et al.  Leader-Member Exchange and Supervisor Career Mentoring as Complementary Constructs in Leadership Research , 1994 .

[40]  Vernon D. Miller,et al.  INFORMATION SEEKING DURING ORGANIZATIONAL ENTRY: INFLUENCES, TACTICS, AND A MODEL OF THE PROCESS , 1991 .

[41]  H. Michener,et al.  Liking as a determinant of power tactic preference. , 1972 .

[42]  L. Smith-Lovin,et al.  Homophily in voluntary organizations: Status distance and the composition of face-to-face groups. , 1987 .

[43]  G. Zahn,et al.  Leadership and the art of cycle maintenance: A simulation model of superior—subordinate interaction , 1981 .

[44]  Neville T. Duarte,et al.  How do I like thee? Let me appraise the ways , 1993 .

[45]  Denise M. Rousseau,et al.  CHANGING OBLIGATIONS AND THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY , 1994 .

[46]  R. I. Sutton,et al.  Organizational behavior: linking individuals and groups to organizational contexts. , 1993, Annual review of psychology.

[47]  R. Burt.  The contingent value of social capital. , 1997 .

[48]  Rocki-Lee Dewitt.  The Structural Consequences of Downsizing , 1993 .

[49]  Daniel Quinn Mills.  Rebirth of the corporation , 1991 .

[50]  Ronald S. Burt,et al.  Interorganization Contagion in Corporate Philanthropy , 1991 .

[51]  M. Sahlins.  Stone Age Economics , 2020 .

[52]  Anne S. Tsui,et al.  Relational demography: The missing link in vertical dyad linkage. , 1995 .

[53]  F. Heider.  The psychology of interpersonal relations , 1958 .

[54]  R. Liden,et al.  Leader-Member Exchange Model of Leadership: A Critique and Further Development , 1986 .

[55]  Fredric M. Jablin.  Superior–subordinate communication: The state of the art. , 1979 .

[56]  G. Graen,et al.  Generalizability of the vertical dyad linkage model of leadership. , 1980 .

[57]  R. Liden,et al.  Effects of impression management on performance ratings: A longitudinal study. , 1995 .

[58]  D. Duchon,et al.  Vertical dyad linkage: A longitudinal assessment of antecedents, measures, and consequences. , 1986 .

[59]  G. Graen,et al.  Effects of Linking-Pin Quality on the Quality of Working Life of Lower Participants. , 1977 .

[60]  B. Malinowski.  Argonauts of the Western Pacific , 1922 .

[61]  Terri A. Scandura,et al.  Mentorship and career mobility: An empirical investigation , 1992 .

[62]  R. Kahn,et al.  The Social Psychology of Organizations , 1966 .

[63]  Denise M. Rousseau,et al.  New hire perceptions of their own and their employer's obligations: A study of psychological contracts , 1990 .

[64]  D. Turban,et al.  Supervisor-subordinate similarity: types, effects, and mechanisms. , 1988, The Journal of applied psychology.

[65]  R. Emerson.  Power-Dependence Relations , 1962, Power in Modern Societies.

[66]  J. Coleman.  Foundations of Social Theory , 1990 .

[67]  Charles T. Hill,et al.  Disclosure Reciprocity: Conceptual and Measurement Issues , 1982 .

[68]  David Krackhardt,et al.  The snowball effect: Turnover embedded in communication networks. , 1986 .

[69]  G. Simmel.  The sociology of Georg Simmel , 1950 .

[70]  William J. Haga,et al.  A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: A longitudinal investigation of the role making process , 1975 .

[71]  Anson Seers,et al.  Team-member exchange quality: a new construct for role-making research , 1989 .

[72]  H. Kelley,et al.  The social psychology of groups , 1960 .

[73]  J. Tognoli.  Reciprocation of generosity and knowledge of game termination in the decomposed Prisoner's Dilemma Game , 1975 .

[74]  G. Graen.  Role-making processes within complex organizations , 1976 .

[75]  D. D. Steiner,et al.  The Role of the Initial Interaction in Leader-Member Exchange , 1990 .

[76]  Debra A. Major,et al.  A LONGITUDINAL INVESTIGATION OF NEWCOMER EXPECTATIONS, EARLY SOCIALIZATION OUTCOMES, AND THE MODERATING EFFECTS OF ROLE DEVELOPMENT FACTORS , 1995 .

[77]  A. Gouldner.  THE NORM OF RECIPROCITY: A PRELIMINARY STATEMENT * , 1960 .

[78]  Chester A. Schriesheim,et al.  Validation of a New Leader-Member Exchange Scale (Lmx-6) Using Hierarchically-Nested Maximum Likelihood Confirmatory Factor Analysis , 1992 .

[79]  William J. Haga,et al.  Organizational understructure and leadership: A longitudinal investigation of the managerial role-making process , 1976 .

[80]  Roberto M. Fernandez,et al.  Structural bases of leadership in intraorganizational networks , 1991 .

[81]  Dennis W. Organ,et al.  COGNITIVE VERSUS AFFECTIVE DETERMINANTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR , 1989 .

[82]  Gerald R. Ferris,et al.  Influence tactics, affect, and exchange quality in supervisor-subordinate interactions: A laboratory experiment and field study. , 1990 .

[83]  P. Karoly,et al.  With a little flak from my friends : development and preliminary validation of the test of negative social exchange (TENSE) , 1991 .

[84]  Charles A. O'Reilly,et al.  Being different: Relational demography and organizational attachment. , 1991 .