A REVIEW ON AGENTS FOR THE TREATMENT OF LEPROSY INFECTION

Leprosy is an ancient disease which is caused due to bacterial infection while curable but endures to be a substantial health problem in numerous parts across the world. It is an extremely contagious disease that is caused by any of 3 strains of bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis; Nontuberculous Mycobacterium; and Mycobacterium leprae. In several regions of Brazil, leprosy is a health issue which is still an endemic. Mainly skin, peripheral nerves, eyes, and mucosa of the upper respiratory tract are affected due to this chronic infection. As per the data shared by WHO across 159 countries globally, there were around 208,619 new leprosy cases reported. The global prevalence of leprosy is overcome with the aid of multidrug therapy which remains to be the chiefly targeted for treatment. The multidrug therapy gets attention as they show tremendous potential in fighting this disease. This review briefs about the different drugs and strategies which are used in treatment and superintendence of leprosy.

[1]  P. Suffys,et al.  Molecular epidemiology of leprosy: An update. , 2020, Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases.

[2]  R. Siddiqui,et al.  Mycobacterium leprae: Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment options. , 2020, Microbial pathogenesis.

[3]  R. Dellavalle,et al.  Leprosy: Treatment and Management of Complications. , 2020, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[4]  Tamer M. Ibrahim,et al.  New acrylamide-sulfisoxazole conjugates as dihydropteroate synthase inhibitors. , 2020, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry.

[5]  M. Jafer,et al.  Epidemiological aspects of leprosy. , 2019, Disease-a-month : DM.

[6]  Hayati Çelik,et al.  Potent ribonucleotide reductase inhibitors: Thiazole‐containing thiosemicarbazone derivatives , 2019, Archiv der Pharmazie.

[7]  B. Naafs,et al.  Position statement: LEPROSY: Diagnosis, treatment and follow‐up , 2019, Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology : JEADV.

[8]  Widodo,et al.  A new Mycobacterium leprae dihydropteroate synthase variant (V39I) from Papua, Indonesia , 2019, Heliyon.

[9]  N. Oleinick,et al.  Structure-guided design of anti-cancer ribonucleotide reductase inhibitors , 2019, Journal of enzyme inhibition and medicinal chemistry.

[10]  F. Naaz,et al.  Ribonucleotide reductase as a drug target against drug resistance Mycobacterium leprae: A molecular docking study. , 2018, Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases.

[11]  J. R. de Sousa,et al.  Nerve Growth Factor and Pathogenesis of Leprosy: Review and Update , 2018, Front. Immunol..

[12]  L. Schuler‐Faccini,et al.  Erythema Nodosum Leprosum: Update and challenges on the treatment of a neglected condition. , 2018, Acta tropica.

[13]  A. Stone,et al.  Mycobacterium leprae genomes from naturally infected nonhuman primates , 2018, PLoS neglected tropical diseases.

[14]  M. Fischer.  Leprosy – an overview of clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment , 2017, Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft = Journal of the German Society of Dermatology : JDDG.

[15]  A. Fernandes,et al.  A ribonucleotide reductase inhibitor with deoxyribonucleoside‐reversible cytotoxicity , 2016, Molecular oncology.

[16]  S. White,et al.  Pterin-sulfa conjugates as dihydropteroate synthase inhibitors and antibacterial agents. , 2016, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters.

[17]  L. Abel,et al.  Pauci- and Multibacillary Leprosy: Two Distinct, Genetically Neglected Diseases , 2016, PLoS neglected tropical diseases.

[18]  S. Gupta.  Histoid leprosy: review of the literature , 2015, International journal of dermatology.

[19]  A. Aubry,et al.  Update on the epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment of leprosy. , 2015, Medecine et maladies infectieuses.

[20]  E. Ignotti,et al.  Inflammatory Mediators of Leprosy Reactional Episodes and Dental Infections: A Systematic Review , 2015, Mediators of inflammation.

[21]  P. Steinmann,et al.  Current knowledge on Mycobacterium leprae transmission: a systematic literature review. , 2015, Leprosy review.

[22]  F. Baas,et al.  M. leprae components induce nerve damage by complement activation: identification of lipoarabinomannan as the dominant complement activator , 2015, Acta Neuropathologica.

[23]  C. Franco-Paredes,et al.  Leprosy in the 21st Century , 2015, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[24]  J. Quaresma,et al.  Relationship between growth factors and its implication in the pathogenesis of leprosy. , 2014, Microbial pathogenesis.

[25]  E. Tortoli.  Microbiological Features and Clinical Relevance of New Species of the Genus Mycobacterium , 2014, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[26]  M. Ochoa,et al.  Recognizing and managing the immunologic reactions in leprosy. , 2014, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[27]  Sameh Eid,et al.  Design, synthesis, antimicrobial evaluation and molecular docking studies of some new thiophene, pyrazole and pyridone derivatives bearing sulfisoxazole moiety. , 2014, European journal of medicinal chemistry.

[28]  D. Falzon,et al.  Safety and availability of clofazimine in the treatment of multidrug and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: analysis of published guidance and meta-analysis of cohort studies , 2014, BMJ Open.

[29]  D. E. Antunes,et al.  Identification of clinical, epidemiological and laboratory risk factors for leprosy reactions during and after multidrug therapy , 2013, Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.

[30]  J. Ocampo-Candiani,et al.  Leprosy. An update: definition, pathogenesis, classification, diagnosis, and treatment. , 2013, Actas dermo-sifiliograficas.

[31]  D. Lockwood,et al.  New findings in the pathogenesis of leprosy and implications for the management of leprosy , 2013, Current opinion in infectious diseases.

[32]  Koichi Suzuki,et al.  Clofazimine Modulates the Expression of Lipid Metabolism Proteins in Mycobacterium leprae-Infected Macrophages , 2012, PLoS neglected tropical diseases.

[33]  Ruchi S. Gupta,et al.  Revalidation of various clinical criteria for the classification of leprosy--a clinic-pathological study. , 2012, Leprosy review.

[34]  R. Bhat,et al.  Leprosy: An Overview of Pathophysiology , 2012, Interdisciplinary perspectives on infectious diseases.

[35]  D. Scollard.  Chemotherapy of leprosy has changed (almost) everything. , 2012, Leprosy review.

[36]  J. Grosset,et al.  The chemotherapy of leprosy: an interpretive history. , 2012, Leprosy review.

[37]  D. Lockwood,et al.  Nerve damage in leprosy: a continuing challenge to scientists, clinicians and service providers. , 2012, International health.

[38]  J. Boivin,et al.  Is there a role for rifampicin, ofloxacin and minocycline (ROM) therapy in the treatment of leprosy? Systematic review and meta‐analysis , 2011, Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH.

[39]  D. Scollard,et al.  Evaluation of Multi-Drug Therapy for Leprosy in the United States Using Daily Rifampin , 2011, Southern medical journal.

[40]  M. Duthie,et al.  Clinical, immunological, and genetic aspects in leprosy , 2011 .

[41]  D. Lockwood,et al.  Leprosy now: epidemiology, progress, challenges, and research gaps. , 2011, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[42]  D. Scollard,et al.  Hansen's disease (leprosy) complicated by secondary mycobacterial infection. , 2011, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[43]  S. White,et al.  Synthesis of bi-substrate state mimics of dihydropteroate synthase as potential inhibitors and molecular probes. , 2011, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry.

[44]  P. Prasad,et al.  LEPROSY THERAPY, PAST AND PRESENT: CAN WE HOPE TO ELIMINATE IT? , 2010, Indian journal of dermatology.

[45]  A. Agrawal.  Clinical Management of Leprosy Reactions , 2010 .

[46]  K. Hevener,et al.  Structural studies of pterin-based inhibitors of dihydropteroate synthase. , 2009, Journal of medicinal chemistry.

[47]  S. Worobec.  Treatment of leprosy/Hansen's disease in the early 21st century , 2009, Dermatologic therapy.

[48]  V. Gautam.  Treatment of leprosy in India. , 2009, Journal of postgraduate medicine.

[49]  Jun O. Liu,et al.  Clofazimine Inhibits Human Kv1.3 Potassium Channel by Perturbing Calcium Oscillation in T Lymphocytes , 2008, PloS one.

[50]  E. Wilder-Smith,et al.  Nerve damage in leprosy and its management , 2008, Nature Clinical Practice Neurology.

[51]  D. Lockwood,et al.  Leprosy type 1 (reversal) reactions and their management. , 2008, Leprosy review.

[52]  D. Scollard.  The biology of nerve injury in leprosy. , 2008, Leprosy review.

[53]  D. Lockwood,et al.  Towards understanding the pathology of erythema nodosum leprosum. , 2008, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

[54]  M. Robson,et al.  Leprosy: Steps Along the Journey of Eradication , 2008, Public health reports.

[55]  Maria Paola Costi,et al.  Discovery of potent pteridine reductase inhibitors to guide antiparasite drug development , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[56]  S. Dogra,et al.  The imperatives of leprosy treatment in the pre‐ and post‐global leprosy elimination era: Appraisal of changing the scenario to current status , 2008, The Journal of dermatological treatment.

[57]  G. Rook,et al.  Mycobacteria and allergies. , 2007, Immunobiology.

[58]  Joseph I. Ambrus,et al.  Dual action-based approaches to antibacterial agents. , 2007, Current medicinal chemistry.

[59]  E. Tortoli.  The new mycobacteria: an update. , 2006, FEMS immunology and medical microbiology.

[60]  Diana J L Williams,et al.  The Continuing Challenges of Leprosy , 2006, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[61]  Rehana Tippoo,et al.  MDT-MB therapy in paucibacillary leprosy: a clinicopathological assessment. , 2005, Indian journal of dermatology, venereology and leprology.

[62]  J. Coppee,et al.  On the Origin of Leprosy , 2005, Science.

[63]  J. Srinivasan,et al.  Leprosy and the peripheral nervous system: Basic and clinical aspects , 2004, Muscle & nerve.

[64]  S. Moschella.  An update on the diagnosis and treatment of leprosy. , 2004, Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology.

[65]  S. Dogra,et al.  Epidemiological characteristics of leprosy reactions: 15 years experience from north India. , 2004, International journal of leprosy and other mycobacterial diseases : official organ of the International Leprosy Association.

[66]  V. Katoch.  Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of leprosy , 2002, Expert Reviews in Molecular Medicine.

[67]  Nalin Rastogi,et al.  The mycobacteria: an introduction to nomenclature and pathogenesis. , 2001, Revue scientifique et technique.

[68]  Arkady Mustaev,et al.  Structural Mechanism for Rifampicin Inhibition of Bacterial RNA Polymerase , 2001, Cell.

[69]  A. Rambukkana.  Molecular basis for the peripheral nerve predilection of Mycobacterium leprae. , 2001, Current opinion in microbiology.

[70]  W H Jopling,et al.  Clinical aspects of leprosy. , 1982, Tubercle.

[71]  R. Singh,et al.  THE TREATMENT OF LEPROSY , 1948, Indian journal of dermatology.

[72]  E. Muir.  Recent advances in the treatment of leprosy. , 1948, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

[73]  R. Rao,et al.  Chapter-31 Chemotherapy: Development and Evolution of WHO-MDT and Newer Treatment Regimens , 2017 .

[74]  Arshdeep,et al.  Minocycline in leprosy patients with recent onset clinical nerve function impairment , 2017, Dermatologic therapy.

[75]  U. Khemani,et al.  An alternative hepatosafe treatment in leprosy , 2016 .

[76]  V. Pai.  Role of clofazimine in management of reactions in leprosy: A brief overview , 2015 .

[77]  M. Abreu,et al.  Revista2Vol89ingles2_Layout 1 , 2014 .

[78]  Suman Jain,et al.  Newer Management Options in Leprosy , 2013, Indian journal of dermatology.

[79]  O. Parkash.  Classification of leprosy into multibacillary and paucibacillary groups: an analysis. , 2009, FEMS immunology and medical microbiology.

[80]  R. Brosch,et al.  Pathogenomics of mycobacteria. , 2009, Genome dynamics.

[81]  M. Binitha,et al.  A study of oxidative stress in paucibacillary and multibacillary leprosy. , 2008, Indian journal of dermatology, venereology and leprology.

[82]  G. Pfyffer.  Mycobacterium: General Characteristics, Laboratory Detection, and Staining Procedures* , 2006 .

[83]  V. Somaraju.  Drugs Used in Tuberculosis and Leprosy , 2003 .