Seismic intervention options for multi-tiered Nepalese Pagodas: The case study of Jaisedewal temple

Abstract During the 2015 Gorkha earthquake of 7.8 Mw that hit Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, numerous Nepalese Pagodas suffered extensive damage while others collapsed. Risk reduction strategies implemented in the region focused on disassembling historical structures and rebuilding them with modern material without in depth analysis of why they suffer damage and collapse. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effectiveness of low-cost, low-intervention, reversible repair and strengthening options for the Nepalese Pagodas. As a case study, the Jaisedewal Temple, typical example of the Nepalese architectural style, was investigated. A nonlinear three-dimensional finite element model of the Jaisedewal Temple was developed and the seismic performance of the temple was assessed by undertaking linear, nonlinear static and nonlinear dynamic analyses. Also, different structural intervention options, suggested by local engineers and architects working in the restoration of temples in Nepal, were examined for their efficacy to withstand strong earthquake vibrations. Additionally, the seismic response of the exposed foundation that the Nepalese Pagodas are sitting on was investigated. From the results analysis, it was found that pushover analysis failed to capture the type of failure which highlights the necessity to perform time-history analysis to accurately evaluate the seismic response of the investigated temple. Also, stiffening the connections along the temple was found to enhance the seismic behaviour of the temple, while strengthening the plinth base was concluded to be insignificant. Outputs from this research could contribute towards the strategic planning and conservation of multi-tiered temples across Nepal and reduce their risk to future earthquake damage without seriously affecting their beautiful architectural heritage.

[1]  Keshab Sharma,et al.  Challenges for reconstruction after Mw7.8 Gorkha earthquake: a study on a devastated area of Nepal , 2018 .

[2]  Andrea Chiozzi,et al.  Numerical insights on the seismic behavior of a non-isolated historical masonry tower , 2018, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering.

[3]  K. Sharma,et al.  Performance of Heritage Structures during the Nepal Earthquake of April 25, 2015 , 2019 .

[4]  G. Milani.  Simple homogenization model for the non-linear analysis of in-plane loaded masonry walls , 2011 .

[5]  V. Sarhosis,et al.  Monitoring of a Historical Masonry Structure in Case of Induced Seismicity , 2020, International Journal of Architectural Heritage.

[6]  P. Lourenço,et al.  Multisurface Interface Model for Analysis of Masonry Structures , 1997 .

[7]  Wei-Xin Ren,et al.  Dynamic and seismic performance of old multi-tiered temples in Nepal , 2003 .

[8]  M. Santana Quintero,et al.  DIGITAL RECORDING AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE FOR REHABILITATING HISTORIC STRUCTURES AT THE KATHMANDU VALLEY AFTER GORKHA EARTHQUAKE 2015 , 2017 .

[9]  Gabriele Milani,et al.  Damage assessment and collapse investigation of three historical masonry palaces under seismic actions , 2019, Engineering Failure Analysis.

[10]  Gabriele Milani,et al.  Monte Carlo homogenized limit analysis model for randomly assembled blocks in-plane loaded , 2010 .

[11]  P. Lourenço.  Computational strategies for masonry structures : Proefschrift , 1996 .

[12]  Sarhosis,et al.  Documentation of Heritage structures through geo-crowdsourcing and web-mapping , 2017 .

[13]  Humberto Varum,et al.  Structural vulnerability of Nepalese Pagoda temples , 2012 .

[14]  Y. Hashash,et al.  Overview of the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake and the Earthquake Spectra Special Issue , 2017 .

[15]  Gabriele Milani,et al.  Multi-tiered Nepalese temples: Advanced numerical investigations for assessing performance at failure under horizontal loads , 2019, Engineering Failure Analysis.

[16]  D. Brackenbury,et al.  Automated Defect Detection For Masonry Arch Bridges , 2019, International Conference on Smart Infrastructure and Construction 2019 (ICSIC).

[17]  D. D’Ayala,et al.  2015 Nepal earthquake: seismic performance and post-earthquake reconstruction of stone in mud mortar masonry buildings , 2020, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering.

[18]  Nobuo Takai,et al.  Strong ground motion in the Kathmandu Valley during the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, earthquake , 2016, Earth, Planets and Space.

[19]  Serena Cattari,et al.  Modeling Strategies for the Computational Analysis of Unreinforced Masonry Structures: Review and Classification , 2019, Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering.

[20]  G. Milani,et al.  Masonry behaviour and modelling , 2014 .

[21]  G. Milani,et al.  Three-dimensional discrete element modelling of rubble masonry structures from dense point clouds , 2020 .

[22]  S. Bijukchhen,et al.  Strong-Motion Characteristics and Visual Damage Assessment Around Seismic Stations in Kathmandu after the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake , 2017 .

[23]  Matthew J. DeJong,et al.  The Performance of Slender Monuments during the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake , 2017 .

[24]  Jason Ingham,et al.  Building typologies and failure modes observed in the 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) earthquake , 2016 .

[25]  Eleni Smyrou,et al.  Automatic crack classification and segmentation on masonry surfaces using convolutional neural networks and transfer learning , 2021, Automation in Construction.

[26]  G. Milani,et al.  Simple SQP approach for out-of-plane loaded homogenized brickwork panels, accounting for softening , 2011 .

[27]  R. B. Kunwar,et al.  Experimental, numerical and field study investigating a heritage structure collapse after the 2015 Gorkha earthquake , 2020, Natural Hazards.

[28]  M. Cervera,et al.  Continuum damage model for orthotropic materials: Application to masonry , 2011 .

[29]  Dipendra Gautam,et al.  Seismic Performance of World Heritage Sites in Kathmandu Valley during Gorkha Seismic Sequence of April–May 2015 , 2017 .

[30]  T. Hanazato,et al.  Seismic Analysis of a Three-Tiered Pagoda Temple Affected by the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake , 2018, International Journal of Architectural Heritage.

[31]  Katsuichiro Goda,et al.  The 2015 Gorkha Nepal Earthquake: Insights from Earthquake Damage Survey , 2015, Front. Built Environ..

[32]  G. Franco,et al.  Site amplification in the Kathmandu Valley during the 2015 M7.6 Gorkha, Nepal earthquake , 2016, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering.

[33]  Andre R. Barbosa,et al.  Damage Assessment and Modeling of the Five-Tiered Pagoda-Style Nyatapola Temple , 2017 .

[34]  V. Der,et al.  Shear behaviour of bed joints , 1993 .

[35]  Yi Pan,et al.  Seismic damage assessment of Nepalese cultural heritage building and seismic retrofit strategies: 25 April 2015 Gorkha (Nepal) earthquake , 2018 .

[36]  S. Bhagat,et al.  Damage to Cultural Heritage Structures and Buildings Due to the 2015 Nepal Gorkha Earthquake , 2018 .

[37]  Junji Kiyono,et al.  Ground Motion Characteristics of the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake, Survey of Damage to Stone Masonry Structures and Structural Field Tests , 2015, Front. Built Environ..

[38]  Reeves Whitney,et al.  Ground Motion Characteristics of the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake and Its Effects on a Prototype Unreinforced Masonry Building , 2017 .

[39]  Aníbal Costa,et al.  Seismic sensitivity analysis of the common structural components of Nepalese Pagoda temples , 2014, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering.

[40]  Francesco Fabbrocino,et al.  Evaluation of different approaches for the estimation of the seismic vulnerability of masonry towers , 2018, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering.

[41]  S. Shrestha,et al.  Damage Assessment of Cultural Heritage Structures after the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake: A Case Study of Jagannath Temple , 2017 .

[42]  V. Joshi,et al.  Historic Earthquake-Resilient Structures in Nepal and Other Himalayan Regions and Their Seismic Restoration , 2017 .

[43]  Vasilis Sarhosis,et al.  Stability analysis of leaning historic masonry structures , 2018, Automation in Construction.

[44]  Aníbal Costa,et al.  Seismic vulnerability and loss assessment of the Nepalese Pagoda temples , 2015, Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering.

[45]  Bozidar Stojadinovic,et al.  Improving Post-Earthquake Building Safety Evaluation using the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal, Earthquake Rapid Visual Damage Assessment Data , 2017 .

[46]  Gabriele Milani,et al.  Non-linear dynamic and static analyses on eight historical masonry towers in the North-East of Italy , 2016 .

[47]  Hideo Fujitani,et al.  Investigation of Damage in and Around Kathmandu Valley Related to the 2015 Gorkha, Nepal Earthquake and Beyond , 2016, Geotechnical and Geological Engineering.

[48]  Vasilis Sarhosis,et al.  Share Our Cultural Heritage (SOCH): Worldwide 3D Heritage Reconstruction and Visualization via Web and Mobile GIS , 2018, ISPRS Int. J. Geo Inf..