Optimism and Well-Being in Older Adults: The Mediating Role of Social Support and Perceived Control

To investigate how psychosocial resources may improve well-being for older adults, this study explored the relationship among questionnaire measures of optimism, social support and perceptions of control in predicting subjective well-being (measured with the positive affect subscale of the Affect Balance Scale) (Bradburn, 1969) and psychological well-being (measured with the purpose in life scale of the Ryff Psychological Well-being scales) (Ryff, Lee, Essex, & Schmutte, 1994) among older adults. The potential mediating roles of perceived social support and perception of control were also explored. Participants were 225 adults aged from 65 to 94 years. Optimism was found to be a predictor of both subjective and psychological well-being, and perceived social support was found to mediate the relationship between optimism and subjective well-being, but not psychological well-being. In contrast, perception of control was found to mediate the relationship between optimism and psychological well-being, but not subjective wellbeing. Longitudinal research is needed to confirm these pathways.

[1]  L. Rapport,et al.  Cognitive and Psychosocial Predictors of Subjective Well-Being in Urban Older Adults , 2003, The Clinical neuropsychologist.

[2]  R. Vallerand,et al.  Cognitive adaptation and mental health: A motivational analysis , 2004 .

[3]  A. Isen,et al.  Positive affect, cognitive processes, and social behavior. , 1987 .

[4]  B. Singer,et al.  Best news yet on the six-factor model of well-being , 2006 .

[5]  Martin Pinquart,et al.  Age Differences in Perceived Positive Affect, Negative Affect, and Affect Balance in Middle and Old Age , 2001 .

[6]  A. Waterman,et al.  The Implications of Two Conceptions of Happiness (Hedonic Enjoyment and Eudaimonia) for the Understanding of Intrinsic Motivation , 2008 .

[7]  L. Noelker,et al.  Longitudinal impact of interhousehold caregiving on adult children's mental health. , 1989, Psychology and aging.

[8]  M. Browne,et al.  Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit , 1992 .

[9]  M. Thompson,et al.  The mediating roles of perceived social support and resources in the self-efficacy-suicide attempts relation among African American abused women. , 2002, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[10]  B. Singer,et al.  Positive health: connecting well-being with biology. , 2004, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[11]  J. McConatha,et al.  Primary, secondary, and emotional control across adulthood , 1999 .

[12]  C. McBride-Chang,et al.  Think Positively and Feel Positively: Optimism and Life Satisfaction in Late Life , 2005, International journal of aging & human development.

[13]  R. P. McDonald,et al.  Goodness-of-fit indexes in confirmatory factor analysis : The effect of sample size , 1988 .

[14]  P. Bentler.  Comparative Fit Indices in Structural Models , 1990 .

[15]  Ian Brissette,et al.  The role of optimism in social network development, coping, and psychological adjustment during a life transition. , 2002, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[16]  N. Krause.  Age and decline in role-specific feelings of control. , 2007, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[17]  R. Coursey,et al.  The Relationship of God Control and Internal Locus of Control to Intrinsic Religious Motivation, Coping and Purpose in Life* , 1988 .

[18]  S. Murrell,et al.  Reliability and validity of five mental health scales in older persons. , 1983, Journal of gerontology.

[19]  Rex B. Kline,et al.  Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling , 1998 .

[20]  Andrew Baum,et al.  Optimism and Traumatic Stress: The Importance of Social Support and Coping1 , 2001 .

[21]  Connie R. Wanberg,et al.  Predictors and outcomes of openness to changes in a reorganizing workplace. , 2000, The Journal of applied psychology.

[22]  H. C. Fischer.  On longitudinal impact I , 1959 .

[23]  Richard E. Lucas,et al.  Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. , 2003, Annual review of psychology.

[24]  Michael R. Cunningham,et al.  What do you do when you're happy or blue? Mood, expectancies, and behavioral interest , 1988 .

[25]  D. Dierendonck,et al.  The construct validity of Ryff's Scales of Psychological Well-being and its extension with spiritual well-being , 2004 .

[26]  R. Cummins,et al.  Maintaining Life Satisfaction: The Role of Positive Cognitive Bias , 2002 .

[27]  D. Russell,et al.  Social support, stress, and depressive symptoms among the elderly: test of a process model. , 1991, Psychology and aging.

[28]  Charles S. Carver,et al.  Optimism, pessimism, and psychological well-being. , 2001 .

[29]  Shirlynn Spacapan,et al.  Perceptions of Control in Vulnerable Populations , 1991 .

[30]  M. L. Smith,et al.  Factor structure of mental health measures. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[31]  Michael W. Bridges,et al.  Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): a reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. , 1994, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[32]  E. Chang.  Optimism & pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice. , 2001 .

[33]  J. S. Long,et al.  Testing Structural Equation Models , 1993 .

[34]  Charles S. Carver,et al.  Optimism, pessimism, and self-regulation. , 2001 .

[35]  E. Skinner.  A guide to constructs of control. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[36]  D. Watson,et al.  Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[37]  C. Ryff.  Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. , 1989 .

[38]  P. Thoits,et al.  Stress, coping, and social support processes: where are we? What next? , 1995, Journal of health and social behavior.

[39]  Manuel Barrera,et al.  Distinctions between social support concepts, measures, and models , 1986 .

[40]  M. Stephens,et al.  Older adults' recovery from surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee: psychosocial resources and constraints as predictors of outcomes. , 2002, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[41]  Ed Diener,et al.  Subjective well-being and age: An international analysis. , 1998 .

[42]  C. Keyes,et al.  The structure of psychological well-being revisited. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[43]  E. Deci,et al.  Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: an introduction , 2008 .

[44]  J Rodin,et al.  A longitudinal study of change in domain-specific self-efficacy among older adults. , 1996, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[45]  P. Baltes,et al.  Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. , 1990 .

[46]  Irwin G. Sarason,et al.  A Brief Measure of Social Support: Practical and Theoretical Implications , 1987 .

[47]  C. Reynolds,et al.  Age-related differences and change in positive and negative affect over 23 years. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[48]  B. Pinto,et al.  Social support as a mediator of optimism and distress in breast cancer survivors. , 2003, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[49]  J. Rodin,et al.  Control and Efficacy as Interdisciplinary Bridges , 1999 .

[50]  B. Singer,et al.  The Contours of Positive Human Health , 1998 .

[51]  U. Kunzmann,et al.  Perceiving control: a double-edged sword in old age. , 2002, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[52]  B. Little,et al.  Personal projects, happiness, and meaning: on doing well and being yourself. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[53]  M. Stephens,et al.  Mastery in women's multiple roles and well-being: adult daughters providing care to impaired parents. , 1998, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[54]  N. Bradburn.  The structure of psychological well-being , 1969 .

[55]  O. R. Lightsey.  What Leads to Wellness? , 1996 .

[56]  D. A. Kenny,et al.  The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[57]  E. Deci,et al.  On happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being. , 2001, Annual review of psychology.

[58]  R. Schulz,et al.  A life-span theory of control. , 1995, Psychological review.

[59]  M. Pinquart.  Creating and maintaining purpose in life in old age: A meta-analysis , 2002 .

[60]  A. Bandura.  Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control , 1997, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[61]  M. Stephens,et al.  Multiple Roles of Women Caregivers: Feelings of Mastery and Self-Esteem as Predictors of Psychosocial Well-Being , 1997 .

[62]  C. Carver,et al.  Optimism, coping, and health: assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. , 2009, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[63]  R. Schulz,et al.  Social support as a mediator in the relation between functional status and quality of life in older adults. , 1996, Psychology and aging.

[64]  Shelley E. Taylor,et al.  Psychological resources, positive illusions, and health. , 2000, The American psychologist.

[65]  D. Myers,et al.  Who Is Happy? , 1995 .

[66]  S. Sinha,et al.  Social Support and Self-Control as Variables in Attitude Toward Life and Perceived Control Among Older People in India , 2002, The Journal of social psychology.

[67]  C Cozzarelli,et al.  Personality and self-efficacy as predictors of coping with abortion. , 1993, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[68]  P. Bentler,et al.  Comparative fit indexes in structural models. , 1990, Psychological bulletin.

[69]  Albert Maydeu-Olivares,et al.  OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM AS PARTIALLY INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTS: RELATIONSHIP TO POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE AFFECTIVITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING , 1997 .

[70]  Paul B. Baltes,et al.  Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences , 1990 .

[71]  J. Salsman,et al.  The Link Between Religion and Spirituality and Psychological Adjustment: The Mediating Role of Optimism and Social Support , 2005, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[72]  Luo Lu,et al.  PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CORRELATES OF HAPPINESS , 1997 .

[73]  E. Maher,et al.  Subjective Quality of Life, Perceived Control and Dispositional Optimism Among Older People , 2001 .

[74]  C. Keyes,et al.  Optimizing Well-Being: The Empirical Encounter of Two Traditions , 2002 .

[75]  C. Ryff,et al.  Multiple Roles and Well-being: Sociodemographic and Psychological Moderators , 2006 .

[76]  Jeffrey H. Kahn,et al.  Social support, health, and well-being among the elderly: What is the role of negative affectivity? , 2003 .

[77]  C. Ryff,et al.  My children and me: midlife evaluations of grown children and of self. , 1994, Psychology and aging.