Three-dimensional craniofacial reconstruction imaging.

This review article aims to describe and discuss the imaging techniques most commonly used in medicine and dentistry to obtain three-dimensional images of the craniofacial complex. Three-dimensional imaging techniques provide extensive possibilities for the detailed and precise analysis of the whole craniofacial complex, for virtual (on-screen) simulation and real simulation of orthognathic surgery cases on biomodels before treatment, as well as for the detailed evaluation of the effects of treatment. Laser scanning in combination with the stereolithographic biomodeling seems to be a very promising combination for three-dimensional imaging, although there is still considerable room for improvement. Constant efforts should be made in the direction of developing and enhancing the existing techniques as well as exploring the potential for developing new methods based on emerging sectors of technology.

[1]  Hans-Florian Zeilhofer,et al.  Die Maßhaltigkeit von Stereolithographiemodellen für Operationsplanungen , 1997 .

[2]  L. Lo,et al.  Three-dimensional computed tomographic analysis of the primary nasal deformity in 3-month-old infants with complete unilateral cleft lip and palate. , 1999, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[3]  M W Vannier,et al.  Measurement of the volume of oral tumors by three-dimensional spiral computed tomography. , 2000, Dento maxillo facial radiology.

[4]  M Dujovny,et al.  Computer-aided manufacturing of implants for the repair of large cranial defects: an improvement of the stereolithography technique. , 1999, Neurological research.

[5]  Peer Dettmar,et al.  Diagnostische Möglichkeiten der dreidimensionalen Darstellung sonographischer Bilddaten in der Mund-, Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie , 1997 .

[6]  S Arridge,et al.  Three dimensional digitization of the face and skull. , 1985, Journal of maxillofacial surgery.

[7]  S Sindet-Pedersen,et al.  A comparison of three-dimensional computed tomography scans and stereolithographic models for evaluation of craniofacial anomalies. , 1996, Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery.

[8]  H. Mitani,et al.  Use of selectively colored stereolithography for diagnosis of impacted supernumerary teeth for a patient with cleidocranial dysplasia. , 1998, The International journal of adult orthodontics and orthognathic surgery.

[9]  N Samman,et al.  Three-dimensional virtual reality surgical planning and simulation workbench for orthognathic surgery. , 2000, The International journal of adult orthodontics and orthognathic surgery.

[10]  D. Holck,et al.  Benefits of stereolithography in orbital reconstruction. , 1999, Ophthalmology.

[11]  J. Gateno,et al.  The use of ultrasound to determine the position of the mandibular condyle. , 1993, Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons.

[12]  M R Marcotte,et al.  The use of the occlusogram in planning orthodontic treatment. , 1976, American journal of orthodontics.

[13]  B Kusnoto,et al.  Assessment of 3-dimensional computer-generated cephalometric measurements. , 1999, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[14]  A Romeo,et al.  Holograms in orthodontics: a universal system for the production, development, and illumination of holograms for the storage and analysis of dental casts. , 1995, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[15]  R Staudenmaier,et al.  Ear reconstruction supported by a stereolithographic model. , 2000, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[16]  J. Clement,et al.  Computerized three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging reconstructions of temporomandibular joints for both a model and patients with temporomandibular pain dysfunction. , 1995, Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics.

[17]  J N Elefteriadis,et al.  Evaluation of impacted canines by means of computerized tomography. , 1996, The International journal of adult orthodontics and orthognathic surgery.

[18]  P. Burke,et al.  Stereophotographic measurement of change in facial soft tissue morphology following surgery. , 1983, The British journal of oral surgery.

[19]  K. Fanibunda,et al.  Photoradiography of facial structures. , 1983, The British journal of oral surgery.

[20]  R. Gassner,et al.  The diagnostic value of ultrasonography to determine the temporomandibular joint disk position. , 1997, Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics.

[21]  M. Yokota,et al.  Three-dimensional alveolar bone morphology analysis using computed tomography. , 1998, Journal of periodontology.

[22]  K. Takada,et al.  Relations between tongue volume and capacity of the oral cavity proper. , 1980, Journal of dental research.

[23]  Y J Chen,et al.  Dynamic magnetic resonance imaging technique for the study of the temporomandibular joint. , 2000, Journal of orofacial pain.

[24]  P. D'urso,et al.  Stereolithographic biomodelling in cranio-maxillofacial surgery: a prospective trial. , 1999, Journal of cranio-maxillo-facial surgery : official publication of the European Association for Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery.

[25]  M. Samii,et al.  Three-dimensional computed tomographic reconstruction: planning tool for surgery of skull base pathologies. , 1998, Computer aided surgery : official journal of the International Society for Computer Aided Surgery.

[26]  E. Haacke,et al.  Artifacts caused by cosmetics in MR imaging of the head. , 1987, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[27]  N. Harradine,et al.  Holograms as substitutes for orthodontic study casts: a pilot clinical trial. , 1990, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[28]  S Braun,et al.  Ultrasound imaging of condylar motion: a preliminary report. , 2000, The Angle orthodontist.

[29]  V F Ferrario,et al.  A three-dimensional computerized mesh diagram analysis and its application in soft tissue facial morphometry. , 1998, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[30]  F L Bookstein,et al.  The three-dimensional cephalogram: theory, technique, and clinical application. , 1988, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[31]  C. Kermer,et al.  Preoperative stereolithographic model planning for primary reconstruction in craniomaxillofacial trauma surgery. , 1998, Journal of cranio-maxillo-facial surgery : official publication of the European Association for Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery.

[32]  Y Ariji,et al.  Three-dimensional computed tomographic evaluation of morphologic airway changes after mandibular setback osteotomy for prognathism. , 2000, Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics.

[33]  T M Barker,et al.  Stereolithographic (SL) biomodelling in craniofacial surgery. , 1998, British journal of plastic surgery.

[34]  P. D'urso,et al.  Stereolithographic modelling as an aid to orbital brachytherapy. , 1999, International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics.

[35]  Three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging in skull base lesions. , 1991, American journal of otolaryngology.

[36]  Chen Yr,et al.  Three-dimensional computed tomographic analysis of the primary nasal deformity in 3-month-old infants with complete unilateral cleft lip and palate. , 1999 .

[37]  M. Motoyoshi,et al.  Ultrasonic imaging of the temporomandibular joint: a clinical trial for diagnosis of internal derangement. , 1998, Journal of oral science.

[38]  Y Payan,et al.  A Simulator for Maxillofacial Surgery Integrating 3D Cephalometry and Orthodontia , 2000, Computer aided surgery : official journal of the International Society for Computer Aided Surgery.

[39]  P. D'urso,et al.  Custom cranioplasty using stereolithography and acrylic. , 2000, British journal of plastic surgery.

[40]  G. Undt,et al.  Colour stereolithography for planning complex maxillofacial tumour surgery. , 1998, Journal of cranio-maxillo-facial surgery : official publication of the European Association for Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery.

[41]  R Knapp,et al.  Skull of a 5,300-year-old mummy: reproduction and investigation with CT-guided stereolithography. , 1994, Radiology.

[42]  P. Rüegsegger,et al.  Three-dimensional Analysis of Root Canal Geometry by High-resolution Computed Tomography , 2000, Journal of dental research.

[43]  A. Lev-Toaff,et al.  Artifacts and the visualization of fetal distal extremities using three‐dimensional ultrasound , 2000, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[44]  R. Nanda,et al.  Three-dimensional facial analysis using a video imaging system. , 1996, The Angle orthodontist.

[45]  S R Arridge,et al.  A computer system for the interactive planning and prediction of maxillofacial surgery. , 1988, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[46]  I. I. Rushakov,et al.  Computed Tomography , 2019, Compendium of Biomedical Instrumentation.

[47]  O M Antonyshyn,et al.  Facial asymmetry: three-dimensional analysis using laser surface scanning. , 1999, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[48]  U Frohberg,et al.  Treatment prediction with three-dimensional computer tomographic skull models. , 1994, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[49]  J. H. Gallagher,et al.  The effects of nuclear magnetic resonance on patients with cardiac pacemakers. , 1983, Radiology.

[50]  M. Hansmann,et al.  Diagnosis of a fetal mesoblastic nephroma by 3D‐ultrasound , 2000, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[51]  L. H. Chen,et al.  Three-dimensional virtual imaging of facial skeleton and dental morphologic condition for treatment planning in orthognathic surgery. , 1999, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[52]  R P Langlais,et al.  Three-dimensional computed tomography evaluation of postsurgical condylar displacement after mandibular osteotomy. , 1998, Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics.

[53]  Y. Hamada,et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging findings and clinical symptoms in the temporomandibular joint in patients with mandibular continuity defects. , 2000, Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons.

[54]  M. Vannier,et al.  The “Third” Dimension in Craniofacial Surgery , 1983, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[55]  Alvin G. Wee,et al.  Reconstruction of cranial bone defects using alloplastic implants produced from a stereolithographically-generated cranial model. , 1999, Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore.

[56]  T R Nelson,et al.  Three‐dimensional ultrasonographic imaging of the neonatal brain in high‐risk neonates: preliminary study. , 2000, Journal of ultrasound in medicine : official journal of the American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine.

[57]  T Kuroda,et al.  Three-dimensional dental cast analyzing system using laser scanning. , 1996, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[58]  V F Ferrario,et al.  A computerized non-invasive method for the assessment of human facial volume. , 1995, Journal of cranio-maxillo-facial surgery : official publication of the European Association for Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surgery.

[59]  Three-dimensional computed tomography in evaluation of ankylosis of the temporomandibular joint. , 2000, Scandinavian journal of plastic and reconstructive surgery and hand surgery.

[60]  W. R. Lees,et al.  Three-dimensional fetal ultrasound , 1992, The Lancet.

[61]  T. Redpath,et al.  Assessment of maxillary sinus volume for the sinus lift operation by three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging. , 2000, Dento maxillo facial radiology.

[62]  B Melsen,et al.  The "3-D occlusogram" software. , 1999, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[63]  H. Türkkahraman,et al.  Changes in position of the temporomandibular joint disc and condyle after disc repositioning appliance therapy: a functional examination and magnetic resonance imaging study. , 2009, The Angle orthodontist.

[64]  W S Hinshaw,et al.  Potential hazards and artifacts of ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic surgical and dental materials and devices in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. , 1983, Radiology.

[65]  L D Cromwell,et al.  Classification and investigation of artifacts in magnetic resonance imaging. , 1987, Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America, Inc.

[66]  H. Bantleon,et al.  Functional magnetic resonance imaging of temporomandibular joint disorders. , 2000, European journal of orthodontics.

[67]  Model surgery prediction for mandibular midline distraction osteogenesis. , 1999, International journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery.

[68]  C L Haffner,et al.  A technique for three-dimensional cephalometric analysis as an aid in evaluating changes in the craniofacial skeleton. , 1999, The Angle orthodontist.

[69]  A. Gosain,et al.  Role of Three‐dimensional Computed Tomography in the Assessment of Nasoorbitoethmoidal Fractures , 2000, Annals of plastic surgery.

[70]  G C Park,et al.  Correction of Congenital Microtia Using Stereolithography for Surgical Planning , 2000, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[71]  J E Pessa,et al.  The potential role of stereolithography in the study of facial aging. , 2001, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[72]  V F Ferrario,et al.  Soft tissue facial growth and development as assessed by the three-dimensional computerized mesh diagram analysis. , 1999, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[73]  H Hjalgrim,et al.  Stereolithography: potential applications in anthropological studies. , 1995, American journal of physical anthropology.

[74]  R G Oliver,et al.  Tongue size, oral cavity size and speech. , 2009, The Angle orthodontist.

[75]  N. Tulipan,et al.  Fetal MRI in the Evaluation of Intrauterine Myelomeningocele , 2000, Pediatric Neurosurgery.

[76]  S. Eik-Nes,et al.  The detection of spina bifida before 10 gestational weeks using two‐ and three‐dimensional ultrasound , 2000, Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology.

[77]  J. Gallagher,et al.  The effects of nuclear magnetic resonance on patients with cardiac pacemakers , 1984 .

[78]  Cohen Am,et al.  The Size of the Tongue and the Intermaxillary Space , 1974 .

[79]  R. D. Saunders,et al.  Safety aspects of NMR clinical imaging. , 1984, British medical bulletin.

[80]  T. Moore,et al.  Fetal Weight Prediction by Thigh Volume Measurement With Three‐Dimensional Ultrasonography , 2000, Obstetrics and gynecology.

[81]  B. T. Kernan,et al.  Use of a stereolithography model for accurate, preoperative adaptation of a reconstruction plate. , 2000, Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons.

[82]  K. Kasai,et al.  Relationship between facial types and tooth and bone characteristics of the mandible obtained by CT scanning. , 2009, The Angle orthodontist.

[83]  C. Sforza,et al.  A size-standardized analysis of soft tissue facial profile during growth. , 1997, American journal of orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics : official publication of the American Association of Orthodontists, its constituent societies, and the American Board of Orthodontics.

[84]  H. Feußner,et al.  Tierexperimentelle endoskopische intrauterine Chirurgie bei kraniofazialen Fehlbildungen am Beispiel der Lippen-Kiefer-Gaumen-Spalten , 2003, Mund-, Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie.

[85]  Karl-Heinz Hoffmann,et al.  Diagnostic possibilities with multidimensional images in head and neck area using efficient registration and visualization methods , 1997, Medical Imaging.

[86]  M W Vannier,et al.  Three-dimensional computed tomography landmark measurement in craniofacial surgical planning: experimental validation in vitro. , 1999, Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons.