Nanoparticle contrast agents for computed tomography: a focus on micelles.

Computed tomography (CT) is an X-ray-based whole-body imaging technique that is widely used in medicine. Clinically approved contrast agents for CT are iodinated small molecules or barium suspensions. Over the past seven years there has been a great increase in the development of nanoparticles as CT contrast agents. Nanoparticles have several advantages over small molecule CT contrast agents, such as long blood-pool residence times and the potential for cell tracking and targeted imaging applications. Furthermore, there is a need for novel CT contrast agents, owing to the growing population of renally impaired patients and patients hypersensitive to iodinated contrast. Micelles and lipoproteins, a micelle-related class of nanoparticle, have notably been adapted as CT contrast agents. In this review we discuss the principles of CT image formation and the generation of CT contrast. We discuss the progress in developing nontargeted, targeted and cell tracking nanoparticle CT contrast agents. We feature agents based on micelles and used in conjunction with spectral CT. The large contrast agent doses needed will necessitate careful toxicology studies prior to clinical translation. However, the field has seen tremendous advances in the past decade and we expect many more advances to come in the next decade.

[1]  J. Leipsic,et al.  Coronary computed tomography angiography , 2016, Canadian Medical Association Journal.

[2]  D. Arifin,et al.  Microencapsulated cell tracking , 2013, NMR in biomedicine.

[3]  Zahi A Fayad,et al.  Multifunctional gold nanoparticles for diagnosis and therapy of disease. , 2013, Molecular pharmaceutics.

[4]  Yu Zhang,et al.  CT/fluorescence dual-modal nanoemulsion platform for investigating atherosclerotic plaques. , 2013, Biomaterials.

[5]  David P. Cormode,et al.  Letter to the Editor re: Spectral Hounsfield units—a new radiological concept , 2013, European Radiology.

[6]  Kwangmeyung Kim,et al.  Blood-pool multifunctional nanoparticles formed by temperature-induced phase transition for cancer-targeting therapy and molecular imaging. , 2012, International journal of pharmaceutics.

[7]  Paul F FitzGerald,et al.  Biological Performance of a Size-Fractionated Core-Shell Tantalum Oxide Nanoparticle X-Ray Contrast Agent , 2012, Investigative radiology.

[8]  Naveen M. Kulkarni,et al.  Radiation dose reduction at multidetector CT with adaptive statistical iterative reconstruction for evaluation of urolithiasis: how low can we go? , 2012, Radiology.

[9]  V. Fuster,et al.  Effect of Computed Tomography Scanning Parameters on Gold Nanoparticle and Iodine Contrast , 2012, Investigative radiology.

[10]  Andrew S Torres,et al.  Preclinical assessment of a zwitterionic tantalum oxide nanoparticle X-ray contrast agent. , 2012, ACS nano.

[11]  Liyuan Ma,et al.  In vitro cytotoxicity of surface modified bismuth nanoparticles , 2012, Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine.

[12]  Thorsten Fleiter,et al.  Syntheses and characterization of lisinopril-coated gold nanoparticles as highly stable targeted CT contrast agents in cardiovascular diseases. , 2012, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[13]  Erik C. Dreaden,et al.  The Golden Age: Gold Nanoparticles for Biomedicine , 2012 .

[14]  Sheila Weinmann,et al.  Use of diagnostic imaging studies and associated radiation exposure for patients enrolled in large integrated health care systems, 1996-2010. , 2012, JAMA.

[15]  Z. Fayad,et al.  Engineering of lipid-coated PLGA nanoparticles with a tunable payload of diagnostically active nanocrystals for medical imaging. , 2012, Chemical communications.

[16]  Anna L. Brown,et al.  pH-Dependent Synthesis and Stability of Aqueous, Elemental Bismuth Glyconanoparticle Colloids: Potentially Biocompatible X-ray Contrast Agents , 2012 .

[17]  Axel Thran,et al.  An early investigation of ytterbium nanocolloids for selective and quantitative "multicolor" spectral CT imaging. , 2012, ACS nano.

[18]  Sabee Molloi,et al.  Breast composition measurement with a cadmium-zinc-telluride based spectral computed tomography system. , 2012, Medical physics.

[19]  Lehui Lu,et al.  A high-performance ytterbium-based nanoparticulate contrast agent for in vivo X-ray computed tomography imaging. , 2012, Angewandte Chemie.

[20]  Yanqing Hua,et al.  Multifunctional nanoprobes for upconversion fluorescence, MR and CT trimodal imaging. , 2012, Biomaterials.

[21]  Mingwu Shen,et al.  PEGylated dendrimer-entrapped gold nanoparticles for in vivo blood pool and tumor imaging by computed tomography. , 2012, Biomaterials.

[22]  C. Serna,et al.  Core/Shell Magnetite/Bismuth Oxide Nanocrystals with Tunable Size, Colloidal, and Magnetic Properties , 2012 .

[23]  Rafidah Zainon,et al.  Spectral Hounsfield units: a new radiological concept , 2012, European Radiology.

[24]  A. M. Rush,et al.  X-ray computed tomography imaging of breast cancer by using targeted peptide-labeled bismuth sulfide nanoparticles. , 2011, Angewandte Chemie.

[25]  Jin Wu,et al.  The photoluminescence, drug delivery and imaging properties of multifunctional Eu3+/Gd3+ dual-doped hydroxyapatite nanorods. , 2011, Biomaterials.

[26]  Lehui Lu,et al.  Large‐Scale Synthesis of Bi2S3 Nanodots as a Contrast Agent for In Vivo X‐ray Computed Tomography Imaging , 2011, Advanced materials.

[27]  Songping D. Huang,et al.  Nanoparticles of the Novel Coordination Polymer KBi(H2O)2[Fe(CN)6]·H2O as a Potential Contrast Agent for Computed Tomography. , 2011 .

[28]  Y. Arntz,et al.  Radiopaque iodinated nano-emulsions for preclinical X-ray imaging , 2011 .

[29]  Luigi Rigon,et al.  Gold nanoparticle labeling of cells is a sensitive method to investigate cell distribution and migration in animal models of human disease. , 2011, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[30]  X. Papademetris,et al.  Development and application of a multimodal contrast agent for SPECT/CT hybrid imaging. , 2011, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[31]  S. Gambhir,et al.  Gold nanoparticles: a revival in precious metal administration to patients. , 2011, Nano letters.

[32]  D. Arifin,et al.  Trimodal gadolinium-gold microcapsules containing pancreatic islet cells restore normoglycemia in diabetic mice and can be tracked by using US, CT, and positive-contrast MR imaging. , 2011, Radiology.

[33]  P. Aspelin,et al.  Contrast induced nephropathy: updated ESUR Contrast Media Safety Committee guidelines , 2011, European Radiology.

[34]  Baohua Zhang,et al.  Gd(III) functionalized gold nanorods for multimodal imaging applications. , 2011, Nanoscale.

[35]  N. Ikeda,et al.  Computed Tomography Imaging of Transferrin Targeting Liposomes Encapsulating Both Boron and Iodine Contrast Agents by Convection-Enhanced Delivery to F98 Rat Glioma for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy , 2011, Neurosurgery.

[36]  Axel Thran,et al.  Sensitivity of Photon-Counting Based ${\rm K}$-Edge Imaging in X-ray Computed Tomography , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging.

[37]  Mingwu Shen,et al.  Computed tomography imaging of cancer cells using acetylated dendrimer-entrapped gold nanoparticles. , 2011, Biomaterials.

[38]  Samuel Woojoo Jun,et al.  Large-scale synthesis of bioinert tantalum oxide nanoparticles for X-ray computed tomography imaging and bimodal image-guided sentinel lymph node mapping. , 2011, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[39]  Mingwu Shen,et al.  Enhanced X-ray attenuation property of dendrimer-entrapped gold nanoparticles complexed with diatrizoic acid , 2011 .

[40]  K. Taguchi,et al.  Material separation in x-ray CT with energy resolved photon-counting detectors. , 2011, Medical physics.

[41]  Chad A Mirkin,et al.  Biomimetic high density lipoprotein nanoparticles for nucleic acid delivery. , 2011, Nano letters.

[42]  J Bruce German,et al.  Reconstituted lipoprotein: a versatile class of biologically-inspired nanostructures. , 2011, ACS nano.

[43]  D. Kraitchman,et al.  Fluorocapsules for improved function, immunoprotection, and visualization of cellular therapeutics with MR, US, and CT imaging. , 2011, Radiology.

[44]  Betty Y. S. Kim,et al.  Current concepts: Nanomedicine , 2010 .

[45]  J. Schlomka,et al.  Computed tomography in color: NanoK-enhanced spectral CT molecular imaging. , 2010, Angewandte Chemie.

[46]  P. Fitzgerald,et al.  Synthesis, characterization, and computed tomography imaging of a tantalum oxide nanoparticle imaging agent. , 2010, Chemical communications.

[47]  Gang Zheng,et al.  In vitro assessment of poly-iodinated triglyceride reconstituted low-density lipoprotein: initial steps toward CT molecular imaging. , 2010, Academic radiology.

[48]  Z. Fayad,et al.  Annexin A5-functionalized bimodal nanoparticles for MRI and fluorescence imaging of atherosclerotic plaques. , 2010, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[49]  Lawrence Tamarkin,et al.  Phase I and Pharmacokinetic Studies of CYT-6091, a Novel PEGylated Colloidal Gold-rhTNF Nanomedicine , 2010, Clinical Cancer Research.

[50]  Axel Thran,et al.  Note: This Copy Is for Your Personal, Non-commercial Use Only. to Order Presentation-ready Copies for Distribution to Your Colleagues or Clients, Contact Us at Www.rsna.org/rsnarights. Atherosclerotic Plaque Composition: Analysis with Multicolor Ct and Targeted Gold Nanoparticles 1 Materials and Met , 2022 .

[51]  Klaas Nicolay,et al.  Block-copolymer-stabilized iodinated emulsions for use as CT contrast agents. , 2010, Biomaterials.

[52]  Kai Yang,et al.  Graphene in mice: ultrahigh in vivo tumor uptake and efficient photothermal therapy. , 2010, Nano letters.

[53]  François Hallouard,et al.  Iodinated blood pool contrast media for preclinical X-ray imaging applications--a review. , 2010, Biomaterials.

[54]  Z. Fayad,et al.  A fluorescent, paramagnetic and PEGylated gold/silica nanoparticle for MRI, CT and fluorescence imaging. , 2010, Contrast Media & Molecular Imaging.

[55]  Moshi Geso,et al.  Potential dependent superiority of gold nanoparticles in comparison to iodinated contrast agents. , 2010, European journal of radiology.

[56]  Dar-Bin Shieh,et al.  In vitro and in vivo studies of FePt nanoparticles for dual modal CT/MRI molecular imaging. , 2010, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[57]  Jae-Chang Jung,et al.  Gold nanoparticles coated with gadolinium-DTPA-bisamide conjugate of penicillamine (Au@GdL) as a T1-weighted blood pool contrast agent , 2010 .

[58]  Y. Magata,et al.  X-ray computed tomography contrast agents prepared by seeded growth of gold nanoparticles in PEGylated dendrimer , 2010, Nanotechnology.

[59]  F. Diekmann,et al.  Dose Exposure of Patients Undergoing Comprehensive Stroke Imaging by Multidetector-Row CT: Comparison of 320-Detector Row and 64-Detector Row CT Scanners , 2010, American Journal of Neuroradiology.

[60]  H. Zentgraf,et al.  Anti-CD4-targeted gold nanoparticles induce specific contrast enhancement of peripheral lymph nodes in X-ray computed tomography of live mice. , 2010, Nano letters.

[61]  Mario J. Garcia,et al.  Feasibility of 64-slice gadolinium-enhanced cardiac CT for the evaluation of obstructive coronary artery disease , 2010, Heart.

[62]  Yongmin Chang,et al.  Gold nanoparticles functionalized by gadolinium-DTPA conjugate of cysteine as a multimodal bioimaging agent. , 2010, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters.

[63]  Raghuraman Kannan,et al.  Gold nanoparticle contrast in a phantom and juvenile swine: models for molecular imaging of human organs using x-ray computed tomography. , 2010, Academic radiology.

[64]  A. Butler,et al.  Spectroscopic (multi-energy) CT distinguishes iodine and barium contrast material in MICE , 2010, European Radiology.

[65]  Zahi A Fayad,et al.  Modified natural nanoparticles as contrast agents for medical imaging. , 2010, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[66]  Zahi A Fayad,et al.  High-density lipoprotein-based contrast agents for multimodal imaging of atherosclerosis. , 2010, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[67]  Rui Guo,et al.  X-ray Attenuation Property of Dendrimer-Entrapped Gold Nanoparticles , 2010 .

[68]  L. Goodman The Beatles, the Nobel Prize, and CT scanning of the chest. , 2010, Radiologic clinics of North America.

[69]  Dohyung Lim,et al.  Heparin-coated gold nanoparticles for liver-specific CT imaging. , 2009, Chemistry.

[70]  Samuel A Wickline,et al.  Detecting vascular biosignatures with a colloidal, radio-opaque polymeric nanoparticle. , 2009, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[71]  Stephan G Nekolla,et al.  Cardiovascular molecular imaging: an overview. , 2009, Cardiovascular research.

[72]  Jeff W M Bulte,et al.  In vivo MRI cell tracking: clinical studies. , 2009, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[73]  Zahi A Fayad,et al.  Nanotechnology in Medical Imaging: Probe Design and Applications , 2009, Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology.

[74]  Xavier Montet,et al.  Molecular imaging by micro-CT: specific E-selectin imaging , 2009, European Radiology.

[75]  Klaas Nicolay,et al.  Nanoparticulate assemblies of amphiphiles and diagnostically active materials for multimodality imaging. , 2009, Accounts of chemical research.

[76]  Robert Langer,et al.  Gold, poly(beta-amino ester) nanoparticles for small interfering RNA delivery. , 2009, Nano letters.

[77]  Michael J Sailor,et al.  Computationally guided photothermal tumor therapy using long-circulating gold nanorod antennas. , 2009, Cancer research.

[78]  Jodie L. Conyers,et al.  An iodinated liposomal computed tomographic contrast agent prepared from a diiodophosphatidylcholine lipid. , 2009, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[79]  Vladimir P Torchilin,et al.  Self-assembling micelle-like nanoparticles based on phospholipid-polyethyleneimine conjugates for systemic gene delivery. , 2009, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[80]  Younan Xia,et al.  Near-infrared gold nanocages as a new class of tracers for photoacoustic sentinel lymph node mapping on a rat model. , 2009, Nano letters.

[81]  J. Schlomka,et al.  Multienergy photon-counting K-edge imaging: potential for improved luminal depiction in vascular imaging. , 2008, Radiology.

[82]  J. Rumberger,et al.  Coronary computed tomography angiography: our time has come, but there are miles to go before we sleep. , 2008, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[83]  M. Budoff,et al.  Diagnostic performance of 64-multidetector row coronary computed tomographic angiography for evaluation of coronary artery stenosis in individuals without known coronary artery disease: results from the prospective multicenter ACCURACY (Assessment by Coronary Computed Tomographic Angiography of Indi , 2008, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[84]  Raoul Kopelman,et al.  Targeted gold nanoparticles enable molecular CT imaging of cancer. , 2008, Nano letters.

[85]  Claudia Calcagno,et al.  Nanocrystal core high-density lipoproteins: a multimodality contrast agent platform. , 2008, Nano letters.

[86]  Robert Langer,et al.  Therapeutic RNAi targeting PCSK9 acutely lowers plasma cholesterol in rodents and LDL cholesterol in nonhuman primates , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[87]  J. Schlomka,et al.  Experimental feasibility of multi-energy photon-counting K-edge imaging in pre-clinical computed tomography , 2008, Physics in medicine and biology.

[88]  Rebecca Richards-Kortum,et al.  Aptamer-Targeted Gold Nanoparticles As Molecular-Specific Contrast Agents for Reflectance Imaging , 2008, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[89]  Francis Vocanson,et al.  Gadolinium chelate coated gold nanoparticles as contrast agents for both X-ray computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. , 2008, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[90]  R. Dijkhuizen,et al.  MRI of Monocyte Infiltration in an Animal Model of Neuroinflammation Using SPIO-Labeled Monocytes or Free USPIO , 2008, Journal of cerebral blood flow and metabolism : official journal of the International Society of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism.

[91]  C. Kramer All high-risk patients should not be screened with computed tomographic angiography. , 2008, Circulation.

[92]  J. Lima,et al.  Screening High-Risk Patients With Computed Tomography Angiography , 2008, Circulation.

[93]  Jiang Hsieh,et al.  Prospectively gated transverse coronary CT angiography versus retrospectively gated helical technique: improved image quality and reduced radiation dose. , 2008, Radiology.

[94]  T. Frenzel,et al.  A Preclinical Study to Investigate the Development of Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis: A Possible Role for Gadolinium-Based Contrast Media , 2008, Investigative radiology.

[95]  P. Choyke,et al.  A dual CT-MR dendrimer contrast agent as a surrogate marker for convection-enhanced delivery of intracerebral macromolecular therapeutic agents. , 2008, Contrast media & molecular imaging.

[96]  Kwon-Ha Yoon,et al.  Colloidal Gold Nanoparticles as a Blood-Pool Contrast Agent for X-ray Computed Tomography in Mice , 2007, Investigative radiology.

[97]  Soo Won Seo,et al.  Nanoparticulate carrier containing water-insoluble iodinated oil as a multifunctional contrast agent for computed tomography imaging. , 2007, Biomaterials.

[98]  J. Karp,et al.  Nanocarriers as an Emerging Platform for Cancer Therapy , 2022 .

[99]  M. Bawendi,et al.  Renal clearance of quantum dots , 2007, Nature Biotechnology.

[100]  Sangjin Park,et al.  Antibiofouling polymer-coated gold nanoparticles as a contrast agent for in vivo X-ray computed tomography imaging. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[101]  Sheng-Wen Huang,et al.  Targeted gold nanorod contrast agent for prostate cancer detection by photoacoustic imaging , 2007 .

[102]  E. Roessl,et al.  K-edge imaging in x-ray computed tomography using multi-bin photon counting detectors , 2007, Physics in medicine and biology.

[103]  Chad A Mirkin,et al.  Microarray detection of duplex and triplex DNA binders with DNA-modified gold nanoparticles. , 2007, Analytical chemistry.

[104]  Victor S-Y Lin,et al.  Mesoporous silica nanoparticles for intracellular delivery of membrane-impermeable proteins. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[105]  Klaas Nicolay,et al.  Magnetic and fluorescent nanoparticles for multimodality imaging. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[106]  Zahi A Fayad,et al.  Noninvasive detection of macrophages using a nanoparticulate contrast agent for computed tomography , 2007, Nature Medicine.

[107]  K. Sokolov,et al.  Two-photon luminescence imaging of cancer cells using molecularly targeted gold nanorods. , 2007, Nano letters.

[108]  David J. Robertson,et al.  Gum arabic as a phytochemical construct for the stabilization of gold nanoparticles: in vivo pharmacokinetics and X-ray-contrast-imaging studies. , 2007, Small.

[109]  Mark A. Hlatky,et al.  ACCF/AHA 2007 Clinical Expert Consensus Document on Coronary Artery Calcium Scoring By Computed Tomography in Global Cardiovascular Risk Assessment and in Evaluation of Patients With Chest Pain , 2007 .

[110]  David A. Jaffray,et al.  In Vivo Performance of a Liposomal Vascular Contrast Agent for CT and MR-Based Image Guidance Applications , 2007, Pharmaceutical Research.

[111]  Steven A Curley,et al.  Mammalian pharmacokinetics of carbon nanotubes using intrinsic near-infrared fluorescence , 2006, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[112]  Philippe Robert,et al.  Recent advances in iron oxide nanocrystal technology for medical imaging. , 2006, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[113]  V. Torchilin,et al.  Micellar Nanocarriers: Pharmaceutical Perspectives , 2006, Pharmaceutical Research.

[114]  Shelton D Caruthers,et al.  Nanomedicine opportunities for cardiovascular disease with perfluorocarbon nanoparticles. , 2006, Nanomedicine.

[115]  Ralph Weissleder,et al.  Noninvasive Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1 Imaging Identifies Inflammatory Activation of Cells in Atherosclerosis , 2006, Circulation.

[116]  D. Kraitchman,et al.  Radiopaque alginate microcapsules for X-ray visualization and immunoprotection of cellular therapeutics. , 2006, Molecular pharmaceutics.

[117]  Benjamin M Yeh,et al.  Dendritic iodinated contrast agents with PEG-cores for CT imaging: synthesis and preliminary characterization. , 2006, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[118]  J. Hafner,et al.  Optical properties of star-shaped gold nanoparticles. , 2006, Nano letters.

[119]  J F Hainfeld,et al.  Gold nanoparticles: a new X-ray contrast agent. , 2006, The British journal of radiology.

[120]  L. Hedlund,et al.  A liposomal nanoscale contrast agent for preclinical CT in mice. , 2006, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[121]  Klaas Nicolay,et al.  Lipid‐based nanoparticles for contrast‐enhanced MRI and molecular imaging , 2006, NMR in biomedicine.

[122]  Jan Grimm,et al.  An X-ray computed tomography imaging agent based on long-circulating bismuth sulphide nanoparticles , 2006, Nature materials.

[123]  Hui Li,et al.  Rerouting lipoprotein nanoparticles to selected alternate receptors for the targeted delivery of cancer diagnostic and therapeutic agents. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[124]  C. Murphy,et al.  Anisotropic metal nanoparticles: Synthesis, assembly, and optical applications. , 2005, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[125]  Igor L. Medintz,et al.  Quantum dot bioconjugates for imaging, labelling and sensing , 2005, Nature materials.

[126]  M. Brechbiel,et al.  A water-soluble triiodo amino acid and its dendrimer conjugate for computerized tomography (CT) imaging , 2005 .

[127]  Shelton D Caruthers,et al.  Molecular imaging of human thrombus with computed tomography. , 2005, Academic radiology.

[128]  Jeff W M Bulte,et al.  Iron oxide MR contrast agents for molecular and cellular imaging , 2004, NMR in biomedicine.

[129]  D. Astruc,et al.  Gold nanoparticles: assembly, supramolecular chemistry, quantum-size-related properties, and applications toward biology, catalysis, and nanotechnology. , 2004, Chemical reviews.

[130]  K. Edwards,et al.  Liposomes, disks, and spherical micelles: aggregate structure in mixtures of gel phase phosphatidylcholines and poly(ethylene glycol)-phospholipids. , 2003, Biophysical journal.

[131]  E. Boerwinkle,et al.  From vulnerable plaque to vulnerable patient: a call for new definitions and risk assessment strategies: Part I. , 2003, Circulation.

[132]  Erkki Ruoslahti,et al.  A tumor-homing peptide with a targeting specificity related to lymphatic vessels , 2002, Nature Medicine.

[133]  Martin W. Brechbiel,et al.  Novel Iodinated Dendritic Nanoparticles for Computed Tomography (CT) Imaging , 2002 .

[134]  Vladimir P Torchilin,et al.  PEG-based micelles as carriers of contrast agents for different imaging modalities. , 2002, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[135]  S M Moghimi,et al.  Long-circulating and target-specific nanoparticles: theory to practice. , 2001, Pharmacological reviews.

[136]  T. V. van Berkel,et al.  Recombinant lipoproteins: lipoprotein-like lipid particles for drug targeting. , 2001, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[137]  Catherine J. Murphy,et al.  Wet Chemical Synthesis of High Aspect Ratio Cylindrical Gold Nanorods , 2001 .

[138]  M. Droege,et al.  Cuboidal W3S4 cluster complexes as new generation X-ray contrast agents. , 2000, Inorganic chemistry.

[139]  A. D. Watson,et al.  Metal-Based X-ray Contrast Media. , 1999, Chemical reviews.

[140]  Krause Delivery of diagnostic agents in computed tomography. , 1999, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[141]  V. Torchilin,et al.  CT visualization of blood pool in rats by using long-circulating, iodine-containing micelles. , 1999, Academic radiology.

[142]  M. Brandl,et al.  Biodistribution and computed tomography blood-pool imaging properties of polyethylene glycol-coated iopromide-carrying liposomes. , 1997, Investigative radiology.

[143]  G. Gazelle,et al.  Block-copolymer of polyethylene glycol and polylysine as a carrier of organic iodine: design of long-circulating particulate contrast medium for X-ray computed tomography. , 1997, Journal of drug targeting.

[144]  R. Counsell,et al.  Physicochemical characterization of a synthetic lipid emulsion for hepatocyte-selective delivery of lipophilic compounds: application to polyiodinated triglycerides as contrast agents for computed tomography. , 1996, Journal of pharmaceutical sciences.

[145]  U. Mödder,et al.  Gadodiamid und Gadolinium-DTPA als intravenöse Kontrastmittel in der Computertomographie , 1996 .

[146]  R. Murray,et al.  Monolayers in Three Dimensions: Synthesis and Electrochemistry of ω-Functionalized Alkanethiolate-Stabilized Gold Cluster Compounds , 1996 .

[147]  J. Tacke,et al.  Computed tomography of experimental liver abscesses using a new liposomal contrast agent. , 1996, Investigative radiology.

[148]  E F Halpern,et al.  Percutaneous CT lymphography with perflubron: imaging efficacy in rabbits and monkeys. , 1994, Radiology.

[149]  D. Carney,et al.  Perfluorooctylbromide as a contrast agent for CT and sonography: preliminary clinical results. , 1993, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[150]  R. Mattrey,et al.  Perfluorooctylbromide: a new contrast agent for CT, sonography, and MR imaging. , 1989, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[151]  C. Dick,et al.  X-ray attenuation properties of radiographic contrast media. , 1987, Medical physics.

[152]  Perry Sprawls,et al.  Physical principles of medical imaging , 1987 .

[153]  J. Doppman,et al.  Improved detection of focal lesions with computerized tomographic examination of the liver using ethiodized oil emulsion (EOE‐13) liver contrast , 1984 .

[154]  B. Woda,et al.  Liposomes loaded with contrast material for image enhancement in computed tomography. Work in progress. , 1984, Radiology.

[155]  C. Higgins,et al.  Perfluoroctylbromide as a Blood Pool Contrast Agent for Liver, Spleen, and Vascular Imaging in Computed Tomography , 1984, Journal of computer assisted tomography.

[156]  S. Seltzer,et al.  Liposomes carrying diatrizoate. Characterization of biophysical properties and imaging applications. , 1984, Investigative radiology.

[157]  C. Higgins,et al.  Specific enhancement of intra-abdominal abscesses with perfluoroctylbromide for CT imaging. , 1983, Investigative radiology.

[158]  J. Doppman,et al.  Improved detection of focal lesions with computerized tomographic examination of the liver using ethiodized oil emulsion (EOE-13) liver contrast. , 1984, Cancer.

[159]  G. Glazer,et al.  Biodistribution of a new lipid-soluble CT contrast agent. Evaluation of cholesteryl iopanoate in the rabbit. , 1983, Investigative radiology.

[160]  C. Higgins,et al.  Perfluoroctylbromide: a reticuloendothelial-specific and tumor-imaging agent for computed tomography. , 1982, Radiology.

[161]  R. Molday,et al.  Immunospecific ferromagnetic iron-dextran reagents for the labeling and magnetic separation of cells. , 1982, Journal of immunological methods.

[162]  H. Sostman,et al.  Brominated radiopaque liposomes: contrast agent for computed tomography of liver and spleen: a preliminary report. , 1982, Investigative radiology.

[163]  S. Seltzer,et al.  Radiopaque liposomes: a promising new contrast material for computed tomography of the spleen. , 1981, Radiology.

[164]  P. Dean,et al.  Particulate contrast media for computed tomographic scanning of the liver. , 1980, Investigative radiology.

[165]  J. Doppman,et al.  Development and Experimental Evaluation of a Contrast Medium for Computed Tomographic Examination of the Liver and Spleen , 1979, Journal of computer assisted tomography.

[166]  J. Goldman,et al.  Kinetics of indium-III labelled lymphocytes in normal subjects and patients with Hodgkin's disease. , 1977, British medical journal.

[167]  A. Macovski,et al.  Energy-selective reconstructions in X-ray computerised tomography , 1976, Physics in medicine and biology.

[168]  T. Barlow ROYAL MEDICAL BENEVOLENT FUND , 1930 .