How is men’s conformity to masculine norms related to their body image? Masculinity and muscularity across western countries

© 2014 American Psychological Association. Previous research has suggested that men's conformity to masculine norms (CMN) is an important correlate of men's drive for muscularity. The present study aimed to further delineate the relationship between masculinity and men's body image by examining various dimensions of CMN in relation to various dimensions of men's body image (muscularity, leanness, and fitness) in a cross-national sample. Participants comprised young men from the United States (n = 192), the United Kingdom (n = 141), Australia (n = 160), and Sweden (n = 142). Multigroup path analyses showed that CMN was related to drive for muscularity, leanness, and fitness in all 4 countries, but there were differences across countries in which dimensions of CMN predicted men's body image. Whereas conformity to the masculine norm of winning was a salient predictor across the 4 countries, conformity to the norm of risk-taking was linked to Australian men's body image, and conformity to the norm of violence to British men's body image. The findings support previous research suggesting that men's endorsement of the male gender role plays a significant role in their desire for an ideal body, but the results uniquely document that this relationship may differ across countries.

[1]  A. Frisén,et al.  Developmental patterns in body esteem from late childhood to young adulthood: A growth curve analysis , 2015 .

[2]  S. Rice,et al.  Development and preliminary validation of the male depression risk scale: furthering the assessment of depression in men. , 2013, Journal of affective disorders.

[3]  D. McCreary,et al.  Social dominance orientation predicts drive for muscularity among British men. , 2013, Body image.

[4]  K. Gonsalkorale,et al.  Threatened masculinity and muscularity: an experimental examination of multiple aspects of muscularity in men. , 2013, Body image.

[5]  Ayşe Çiftçi,et al.  A Cross-Cultural Exploration of Masculinity and Relationships in Men From Turkey, Norway, and the United States , 2013 .

[6]  D. Fetchenhauer,et al.  Cohabitation, Gender, and Happiness , 2012 .

[7]  I. Holsen,et al.  Body image satisfaction among Norwegian adolescents and young adults: a longitudinal study of the influence of interpersonal relationships and BMI. , 2012, Body image.

[8]  H. Farrimond.  Beyond the caveman: Rethinking masculinity in relation to men’s help-seeking , 2012, Health.

[9]  S. Rice,et al.  Men and Depression: The Impact of Masculine Role Norms Throughout the Lifespan , 2011 .

[10]  Mike C. Parent,et al.  An Abbreviated Tool for Assessing Conformity to Masculine Norms: Psychometric Properties of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory-46 , 2011 .

[11]  A. Frisén,et al.  On being victimized by peers in the advent of adolescence: prospective relationships to objectified body consciousness. , 2011, Body image.

[12]  C. Lee,et al.  "Man-ing" up and getting drunk: the role of masculine norms, alcohol intoxication and alcohol-related problems among college men. , 2011, Addictive behaviors.

[13]  C. Peat,et al.  Age and Body Image in Caucasian Men , 2011 .

[14]  M. McCabe,et al.  The role of partners in shaping the body image and body change strategies of adult men ——Partners and male body image , 2010 .

[15]  Rachel M. Calogero,et al.  Gender and Body Image , 2010 .

[16]  A. Frisén,et al.  Physical, Sociocultural, and Behavioral Factors Associated with Body-Esteem in 16-Year-Old Swedish Boys and Girls , 2010 .

[17]  E. Boman,et al.  Predictors of men's health care utilization. , 2010 .

[18]  Philip White,et al.  Investigating Hegemonic Masculinity: Portrayals of Masculinity in Men’s Lifestyle Magazines , 2010 .

[19]  A. Frisén,et al.  Body dissatisfaction across cultures: findings and research problems. , 2010, European eating disorders review : the journal of the Eating Disorders Association.

[20]  R. Feasey.  Spray more, get more: masculinity, television advertising and the Lynx effect , 2009 .

[21]  Sarah K. Murnen,et al.  Drive for leanness: assessment and relationship to gender, gender role and objectification. , 2008, Body image.

[22]  Paola Sapienza,et al.  Culture, Gender, and Math , 2008, Science.

[23]  A. Frisén,et al.  Dieting behaviors, body shape perceptions, and body satisfaction: cross-cultural differences in Argentinean and Swedish 13-year-olds. , 2007, Body image.

[24]  Jennifer S. Mills,et al.  Competition and Male Body Image: Increased Drive for Muscularity Following Failure to a Female , 2007 .

[25]  Heather L. Hundley,et al.  Intercultural Dimensions of Communicating Masculinities , 2007 .

[26]  Ryan E. Lipinski,et al.  Desiring the Muscular Ideal: Men's Body Satisfaction in the United States, Ukraine, and Ghana , 2007 .

[27]  Carolina Lunde,et al.  Ten-year-old girls' and boys' body composition and peer victimization experiences: prospective associations with body satisfaction. , 2007, Body image.

[28]  A. Frisén,et al.  Is peer victimization related to body esteem in 10-year-old girls and boys? , 2006, Body image.

[29]  Glenn E. Good,et al.  Italian and American masculinities: A comparison of masculine gender role norms. , 2005 .

[30]  Christine DiStefano,et al.  Using Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Construct Validation: An Empirical Review , 2005 .

[31]  J. Mahalik,et al.  Using the conformity to masculine norms inventory to work with men in a clinical setting. , 2005, Journal of clinical psychology.

[32]  A. Erling,et al.  Body-Esteem in Swedish 10-Year-Old Children , 2004, Perceptual and motor skills.

[33]  David P Mackinnon,et al.  Confidence Limits for the Indirect Effect: Distribution of the Product and Resampling Methods , 2004, Multivariate behavioral research.

[34]  P. Shrout,et al.  Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: new procedures and recommendations. , 2002, Psychological methods.

[35]  Gordon W. Cheung,et al.  Evaluating Goodness-of-Fit Indexes for Testing Measurement Invariance , 2002 .

[36]  Sarah Grogan,et al.  Body Image , 2002 .

[37]  B. Byrne.  Structural equation modeling with EQS : basic concepts, applications, and programming , 2000 .

[38]  Donald R. McCreary,et al.  An Exploration of the Drive for Muscularity in Adolescent Boys and Girls , 2000, Journal of American college health : J of ACH.

[39]  S. Paxton,et al.  Body Image, Self‐Esteem, and Health Status in Middle and Later Adulthood , 1999 .

[40]  Rex B. Kline,et al.  Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling , 1998 .

[41]  D. C. Howell.  Statistical Methods for Psychology , 1987 .

[42]  Karen Gonsalkorale,et al.  Who Cares What She Thinks, What Does He Say? Links between Masculinity, In-Group Bonding and Gender Harassment , 2014 .

[43]  D. McCreary.  Muscularity and Body Image , 2012 .

[44]  C. Davis,et al.  Body Image and Personality , 2012 .

[45]  Halina J. Dour,et al.  The interaction between the superhero ideal and maladaptive perfectionism as predictors of unhealthy eating attitudes and body esteem. , 2011, Body image.

[46]  L. Ricciardelli.  Body image development - adolescent boys , 2011 .

[47]  J. Steinfeldt,et al.  Drive for Muscularity and Conformity to Masculine Norms Among College Football Players , 2011 .

[48]  Roger J. R. Levesque,et al.  Obesity and Overweight , 2011 .

[49]  D. McCreary.  Body image and muscularity. , 2011 .

[50]  Jonathan P. Schwartz,et al.  Internalization of messages from society and perfectionism as predictors of male body image. , 2009, Body image.

[51]  A. Mussap,et al.  Masculine gender role stress and the pursuit of muscularity. , 2008 .

[52]  J. Mahalik,et al.  Masculinity and health behaviors in Australian men: Correction. , 2008 .

[53]  D. McCreary.  The Drive for Muscularity Scale: Description, Psychometrics, and Research Findings. , 2007 .

[54]  B. Tabachnick,et al.  Using multivariate statistics, 5th ed. , 2007 .

[55]  Laura D'Andrea Tyson,et al.  The global gender gap report , 2006 .

[56]  D. Saucier,et al.  Measuring the Drive for Muscularity: Factorial Validity of the Drive for Muscularity Scale in Men and Women. , 2004 .

[57]  J. Mahalik,et al.  Measuring Masculine Body Ideal Distress: Development of a Measure , 2004 .

[58]  Larry H. Ludlow,et al.  Development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory , 2003 .

[59]  P. Bentler,et al.  Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives , 1999 .

[60]  R. Lucas.  Dragging it out: Tales of masculinity in Australian cinema, from Crocodile Dundee to Priscilla, queen of the desert , 1998 .

[61]  S. West,et al.  The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. , 1996 .

[62]  P. Mikulka,et al.  Attitudinal body-image assessment: factor analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. , 1990, Journal of personality assessment.

[63]  B. Tabachnick,et al.  Using Multivariate Statistics , 1983 .