Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context

This article describes briefly the Hofstede model of six dimensions of national cultures: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, Long/ Short Term Orientation, and Indulgence/Restraint. It shows the conceptual and research efforts that preceded it and led up to it, and once it had become a paradigm for comparing cultures, research efforts that followed and built on it. The article stresses that dimensions depend on the level of aggregation; it describes the six entirely different dimensions found in the Hofstede et al. (2010) research into organizational cultures. It warns against confusion with value differences at the individual level. It concludes with a look ahead in what the study of dimensions of national cultures and the position of countries on them may still bring. Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. This article is available in Online Readings in Psychology and Culture: http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol2/iss1/8

[1]  J. G. García Santos,et al.  [Who is the author?]. , 2019, Radiologia.

[2]  Cheryl R. Every‐Wurtz.  Online Readings in Psychology and Culture , 2009 .

[3]  G. Hofstede.  What did GLOBE really measure? Researchers’ minds versus respondents’ minds , 2006 .

[4]  Bradley L. Kirkman,et al.  A quarter century of Culture's Consequences: a review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede's cultural values framework , 2006 .

[5]  E. Diener,et al.  Individualism: A Valid and Important Dimension of Cultural Differences Between Nations , 2005, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[6]  R. McCrae,et al.  Personality and Culture Revisited: Linking Traits and Dimensions of Culture , 2004 .

[7]  Ruud Luijkx,et al.  Human beliefs and values : A cross-cultural sourcebook based on the 1999-2002 value surveys , 2004 .

[8]  Miguel Basáñez,et al.  Human Beliefs and Values , 2004 .

[9]  H. Markus,et al.  The many dimensions of culture , 2004 .

[10]  R. Bhagat.  Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations , 2002 .

[11]  S. Schwartz,et al.  Cultural Values, Sources of Guidance, and their Relevance to Managerial Behavior , 2002 .

[12]  Heather M. Coon,et al.  Rethinking individualism and collectivism: evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. , 2002, Psychological bulletin.

[13]  S. Schwartz,et al.  Value Hierarchies Across Cultures , 2001 .

[14]  G. Hofstede.  Culture′s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations , 2001 .

[15]  M. S. Dixon,et al.  Values , 2000, Pediatrics.

[16]  M. Keaney.  Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business , 1999 .

[17]  김종식.  동아시아 문화와 경영, Geert Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values (Beverly Hills, CA:Sage Publications, 1980) ; and Cultures and Organizations : Software of the Mind (New York:McGraw-Hill, 1997) , 1999 .

[18]  R. Helmreich,et al.  Culture at Work in Aviation and Medicine: National, Organizational and Professional Influences , 1998 .

[19]  G. Hofstede.  Masculinity and Femininity: The Taboo Dimension of National Cultures , 1998 .

[20]  R. Inglehart,et al.  Human values and beliefs : a cross-cultural sourcebook : political, religious, sexual, and economic norms in 43 societies : findings from the 1990-1993 world values survey , 1998 .

[21]  R. Inglehart,et al.  Human Values and Beliefs: A Cross-Cultural Sourcebook , 1998 .

[22]  R. Inglehart.  Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic, and Political Change in 43 Societies , 1997 .

[23]  Harry C. Triandis,et al.  Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. , 1996 .

[24]  T. Kuhn.  The structure of scientific revolutions, 3rd ed. , 1996 .

[25]  Peter B. Smith,et al.  The Rotter Locus of Control Scale in 43 Countries : A Test of Cultural Relativity , 1995 .

[26]  R. H. Waterman,et al.  In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-run Companies , 1995 .

[27]  R. R. Blake,et al.  The Managerial Grid , 1994 .

[28]  S. Schwartz.  Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. , 1994 .

[29]  Alma T. Mintu.  Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind , 1992 .

[30]  P. Costa,et al.  Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO-Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) , 1992 .

[31]  G. Hofstede,et al.  Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind , 1991 .

[32]  G. Hofstede,et al.  Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases. , 1990 .

[33]  M. Bond,et al.  The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth , 1988 .

[34]  楊國樞,et al.  Chinese Values and the Search for Culture-Free Dimensions of Culture , 1987 .

[35]  Herbert W. Marsh,et al.  The Rotter locus of control scale: The comparison of alternative response formats and implications for reliability, validity, and dimensionality , 1986 .

[36]  Sydney Gregory,et al.  Culture's consequences: international differences in work-related values , 1982 .

[37]  G. Hofstede,et al.  Culture′s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values , 1980 .

[38]  Dee G. Appley.  Beyond Culture , 1977 .

[39]  John P. Robinson,et al.  Measures of social psychological attitudes , 1976 .

[40]  R. Lynn,et al.  National differences in extraversion and neuroticism. , 1975, The British journal of social and clinical psychology.

[41]  S. Bem.  The measurement of psychological androgyny. , 1974, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[42]  M. Rokeach.  The Nature Of Human Values , 1974 .

[43]  R. Lynn.  Personality and national character , 1971 .

[44]  M. Douglas,et al.  Natural Symbols: Explorations in Cosmology. , 1970 .

[45]  T. Kuhn.  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 2nd edition , 1970 .

[46]  M. Rokeach.  Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values : A Theory of Organization and Change/ By Milton Rokeach , 1970 .

[47]  M. Rokeach,et al.  Beliefs, Attitudes and Values. A Theory of Organization and Change , 1968 .

[48]  I. Adelman,et al.  Society, Politics, and Economic Development: A Quantitative Approach , 1967 .

[49]  Arthur S. Banks,et al.  Dimensions of Political Systems: Factor Analysis of A Cross-Polity Survey , 1965, American Political Science Review.

[50]  T. Kuhn,et al.  The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. , 1964 .

[51]  F. Strodtbeck,et al.  Variations in value orientations. , 1961 .

[52]  G. A. Miller.  THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW THE MAGICAL NUMBER SEVEN, PLUS OR MINUS TWO: SOME LIMITS ON OUR CAPACITY FOR PROCESSING INFORMATION 1 , 1956 .

[53]  T. Parsons,et al.  Toward a General Theory of Action , 1952 .

[54]  R. Merton.  Social Theory and Social Structure , 1958 .

[55]  R. Cattell.  The dimensions of culture patterns by factorization of national characters. , 1949, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[56]  E. Kelly.  Individualism and collectivism , 1901 .

[57]  J. Kennedy,et al.  Culture , Leadership , and Organizations : The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies , 2022 .