Source and occurrence of particulate lead in tap water.

Lead samples were collected at the tap from homes with lead service lines (LSLs) in a full-scale utility using both random daytime (RDT) and particulate stimulation sampling (PSS) protocols. Analysis of the results revealed two sources and occurrences of particulate lead. A first source is due to corrosion of lead-bearing elements in the premise plumbing (PP) and occurs mostly at low to moderate concentrations < 3 microg/L, with some sporadic higher concentrations (4-12 microg/L). These spikes were consistently observed and considerably increased using PSS, showing that current sampling protocols may miss a significant portion of particulate lead. The second source results from the adsorption of dissolved lead onto iron deposits in LSL/PP, and is continuously present at low to moderate concentrations. Statistical analyses were validated by physical analyses of: (i) lead scales from LSLs; and (ii) lead particles from tap aerators.

[1]  D. Lytle,et al.  Formation of Pb(IV) oxides in chlorinated water , 2005 .

[2]  V. S. Sastri,et al.  Water Contamination : Impact of Tin-Lead Solder , 1995 .

[3]  Suzanne De la Cruz,et al.  Operators Help Develop Certification Exams , 2000 .

[4]  Patrick J. Parsons,et al.  Blood Lead Concentrations < 10 μg/dL and Child Intelligence at 6 Years of Age , 2007, Environmental health perspectives.

[5]  Marc Edwards,et al.  role of chlorine and chloramine in corrosion of lead‐bearing plumbing materials , 2004 .

[6]  P. Auinger,et al.  Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations <10 microg/dL in US children and adolescents. , 2000, Public health reports.

[7]  B. Berghult,et al.  Drinking water distribution - improvements of the surface complexation model for iron corrosion , 2001 .

[8]  S W Rust,et al.  Environmental exposures to lead and urban children's blood lead levels. , 1998, Environmental research.

[9]  Laurie S. McNeill,et al.  Importance of Pb and Cu Particulate Species for Corrosion Control , 2004 .

[10]  MICHAEL R. SCHOCK,et al.  Causes of temporal variability of lead in domestic plumbing systems , 1990, Environmental monitoring and assessment.

[11]  M. Schock,et al.  Occurrence of contaminant accumulation in lead pipe scales from domestic drinking-water distribution systems. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[12]  Marc Edwards,et al.  Lead Particles in Potable Water , 2007 .

[13]  S. Reiber,et al.  Well Water Disinfection Sparks Surprises , 2000 .

[14]  Michael R. Schock,et al.  Lead leaching from inline brass devices: A critical evaluation of the existing standard , 2005 .

[15]  P. Parsons,et al.  Low-Level Prenatal and Postnatal Blood Lead Exposure and Adrenocortical Responses to Acute Stress in Children , 2007, Environmental health perspectives.

[16]  K. Scheckel,et al.  Mode of Occurrence, Treatment and Monitoring Significance of Tetravalent Lead , 2008 .

[17]  A. Hulsmann,et al.  Particulate lead in water supplies , 1990 .

[18]  Thomas J Sorg,et al.  Accumulation of arsenic in drinking water distribution systems. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[19]  R. Hornung,et al.  Environmental lead exposure during early childhood. , 2002, The Journal of pediatrics.

[20]  Marc Edwards,et al.  Elevated blood lead in young children due to lead-contaminated drinking water: Washington, DC, 2001-2004. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[21]  P. Cardew.  Measuring the benefit of orthophosphate treatment on lead in drinking water. , 2009, Journal of water and health.

[22]  Rachel C Copeland,et al.  Desorption of arsenic from drinking water distribution system solids , 2007, Environmental monitoring and assessment.