3D digital outcrop model reconstruction of the Kimberley outcrop (Gale crater, Mars) and its integration into Virtual Reality for simulated geological analysis

Abstract Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry has recently become a cheap and efficient method to reconstruct accurate and highly-resolved 3D Digital Outcrop Model (DOM) from a single set of images. This enables the 3D visualization of hardly accessible and/or remote geological scenes, which is of strong interest for planetary bodies. This paper focuses on the reconstruction of the DOM of the Kimberley outcrop (Gale crater, Mars) using the Agisoft PhotoScan Professional software. This software is used to compute an accurate, scaled and georeferenced 3D mesh of this outcrop from set of multi-scale images taken by the Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity. This model was merged with a 3D model computed from orbital images from the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera (HiRISE) to provide the context. One of the challenges is to integrate data coming from different cameras (with varying optical parameters) not specifically designed for 3D rendering, and with limited points of views. While the obtained DOM allows to observe and characterize geological features of Kimberley’s sedimentary series, classic viewing methods through a 2D screen limits the understanding of the real 3D geometry and scale of the outcrop, as there is no feature such as trees or roads on Mars to provide size references to the user. To overcome this issue and facilitate the interpretation of the DOM, the latter is integrated into a Virtual Reality (VR) environment that enables one or several users working in a collaborative mode to experience a real scale, reliable and realistic depiction of the actual geometries of the geological features reconstructed on the mesh. Precise and accurate description, contextualization of the samplings and mapping of the Kimberley outcrop can therefore be achieved in VR allowing for more precise characterization and interpretations, the same way one would do on a real geological field trip.

[1]  A. McEwen,et al.  Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter's High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) , 2007 .

[2]  Abigail A. Fraeman,et al.  Comparing orbiter and rover image-based mapping of an ancient sedimentary environment, Aeolis Palus, Gale crater, Mars , 2016 .

[3]  J. Arrowsmith,et al.  The emplacement of the active lava flow at Sinabung Volcano, Sumatra, Indonesia, documented by structure-from-motion photogrammetry , 2019, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research.

[4]  D. P. Quinn,et al.  The stratigraphy and evolution of lower Mount Sharp from spectral, morphological, and thermophysical orbital data sets , 2016, Journal of geophysical research. Planets.

[5]  Jeffrey J. Biesiadecki,et al.  Traverse Performance Characterization for the Mars Science Laboratory Rover , 2013, J. Field Robotics.

[6]  A. Triantafyllou,et al.  3-D digital outcrop model for analysis of brittle deformation and lithological mapping (Lorette cave, Belgium) , 2019, Journal of Structural Geology.

[7]  Roger C. Wiens,et al.  The potassic sedimentary rocks in Gale Crater, Mars, as seen by ChemCam on board Curiosity , 2016 .

[8]  R. L. Duncombe,et al.  Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites , 1980 .

[9]  Ugo Becciani,et al.  Immersive Virtual Reality for Earth Sciences , 2018, 2018 Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems (FedCSIS).

[10]  A. Yingst,et al.  A Habitable Fluvio-Lacustrine Environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars , 2014, Science.

[11]  Stefano Tavani,et al.  High precision analysis of an embryonic extensional fault-related fold using 3D orthorectified virtual outcrops: The viewpoint importance in structural geology , 2016 .

[12]  M. Malin,et al.  Assessment of Aeolis Palus stratigraphic relationships based on bench-forming strata in the Kylie and the Kimberley regions of Gale crater, Mars , 2018, Icarus.

[13]  D. Ming,et al.  Classification scheme for sedimentary and igneous rocks in Gale crater, Mars , 2017 .

[14]  Reg G. Willson,et al.  Supplement (.zip file to download) to PRE-PRINT Edgett et al. - Curiosity’s robotic arm-mounted Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI): Characterization and calibration status , 2015 .

[15]  Geert Verhoeven,et al.  Taking computer vision aloft – archaeological three‐dimensional reconstructions from aerial photographs with photoscan , 2011 .

[16]  M. Saccoccio,et al.  The ChemCam Instrument Suite on the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Rover: Science Objectives and Mast Unit Description , 2012 .

[17]  R. E. Arvidson,et al.  Deposition, exhumation, and paleoclimate of an ancient lake deposit, Gale crater, Mars , 2015, Science.

[18]  K. Edgett,et al.  Ancient Martian aeolian processes and palaeomorphology reconstructed from the Stimson formation on the lower slope of Aeolis Mons, Gale crater, Mars , 2018 .

[19]  N. Melikechi,et al.  Chemical variations in Yellowknife Bay formation sedimentary rocks analyzed by ChemCam on board the Curiosity rover on Mars , 2015 .

[20]  Pau Arbués,et al.  A Method for Producing Photorealistic Digital Outcrop Models , 2012 .

[21]  S. Lane,et al.  Structure from motion (SFM) photogrammetry , 2015 .

[22]  Jeffrey R. Johnson,et al.  INITIAL MULTISPECTRAL IMAGING RESULTS FROM THE MARS SCIENCE LABORATORY MASTCAM INVESTIGATION AT THE GALE CRATER FIELD SITE. J.F. Bell III , 2013 .

[23]  Ashwin R. Vasavada,et al.  Geologic overview of the Mars Science Laboratory rover mission at the Kimberley, Gale crater, Mars , 2017 .

[24]  Abdul Rashid Mohammed Shariff,et al.  Using game engine for 3D terrain visualisation of GIS data: A review , 2014 .

[25]  O. Forni,et al.  Desiccation cracks provide evidence of lake drying on Mars, Sutton Island member, Murray formation, Gale crater: REPLY , 2018, Geology.

[26]  Klaus Schilling,et al.  Benchmarking Structure from Motion Algorithms of Urban Environments with Applications to Reconnaissance in Search and Rescue Scenarios , 2018, 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Safety, Security, and Rescue Robotics (SSRR).

[27]  S. Ullman.  The interpretation of structure from motion , 1979, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences.

[28]  A. Valanis,et al.  PHOTOGRAMMETRIC TEXTURE MAPPING OF COMPLEX OBJECTS , 2010 .

[29]  G. Kocurek,et al.  Aeolian dune-field pattern boundary conditions , 2010 .

[30]  S. Robson,et al.  Optimising UAV topographic surveys processed with structure-from-motion: Ground control quality, quantity and bundle adjustment , 2016 .

[31]  Mark W. Smith,et al.  Structure from Motion in the Geosciences , 2016 .

[32]  Stefano Tavani,et al.  Building a virtual outcrop, extracting geological information from it, and sharing the results in Google Earth via OpenPlot and Photoscan: An example from the Khaviz Anticline (Iran) , 2014, Comput. Geosci..

[33]  P. Evans,et al.  Small Scale Aeolian Bedforms , 1975 .

[34]  D. Ming,et al.  Clay mineral diversity and abundance in sedimentary rocks of Gale crater, Mars , 2018, Science Advances.

[35]  Reg G. Willson,et al.  The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Mast-mounted Cameras (Mastcams) Flight Instruments , 2010 .

[36]  M. Westoby,et al.  ‘Structure-from-Motion’ photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications , 2012 .

[37]  M. Favalli,et al.  Multiview 3D reconstruction in geosciences , 2012, Comput. Geosci..

[38]  Muriel Saccoccio,et al.  The ChemCam Remote Micro-Imager at Gale crater: Review of the first year of operations on Mars , 2015 .

[39]  Dana Vrublová,et al.  Documentation Of Landslides And Inaccessible Parts Of A Mine Using An Unmanned UAV System And Methods Of Digital Terrestrial Photogrammetry , 2015 .

[40]  P. Thomas,et al.  Report of the IAU/IAG Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites: 2000 , 2002 .

[41]  Samuel T. Thiele,et al.  Ground-based and UAV-Based photogrammetry: A multi-scale, high-resolution mapping tool for structural geology and paleoseismology , 2014 .

[42]  Justin N. Maki,et al.  The Mars Science Laboratory Engineering Cameras , 2012 .

[43]  Jeff W. Murray.  Building Virtual Reality with Unity and Steam VR , 2017 .

[44]  D. Ming,et al.  Mineralogy, provenance, and diagenesis of a potassic basaltic sandstone on Mars: CheMin X‐ray diffraction of the Windjana sample (Kimberley area, Gale Crater) , 2016, Journal of geophysical research. Planets.

[45]  Michael W. McGreevy.  Virtual Reality and Planetary Exploration , 1992 .