Levulinic Acid Biorefineries: New Challenges for Efficient Utilization of Biomass.

Levulinic acid is a sustainable platform molecule that can be upgraded to valuable chemicals and fuel additives. This article focuses on the catalytic upgrading of levulinic acid into various chemicals such as levulinate esters, δ-aminolevulinic acid, succinic acid, diphenolic acid, γ-valerolactone, and γ-valerolactone derivatives such valeric esters, 5-nonanone, α-methylene-γ valerolactone, and other various molecular-weight alkanes (C9 and C18-C27 olefins).

[1]  S. Granick,et al.  Biosynthesis of delta-aminolevulinic acid from the intact carbon skeleton of glutamic acid in greening barley. , 1975, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[2]  J. Zeikus.  Chemical and fuel production by anaerobic bacteria. , 1980, Annual review of microbiology.

[3]  Chun Chang,et al.  Production of ethyl levulinate by direct conversion of wheat straw in ethanol media. , 2012, Bioresource technology.

[4]  Rajeev S. Assary,et al.  Acid-Catalyzed Conversion of Furfuryl Alcohol to Ethyl Levulinate in Liquid Ethanol. , 2012, Energy & environmental science.

[5]  Dong Wang,et al.  Catalytic upgrading of levulinic acid to 5-nonanone , 2010 .

[6]  Tao Zhang,et al.  Direct catalytic conversion of cellulose into ethylene glycol using nickel-promoted tungsten carbide catalysts. , 2008, Angewandte Chemie.

[7]  Steven L. Suib,et al.  Heterogeneous acidic TiO2 nanoparticles for efficient conversion of biomass derived carbohydrates , 2014 .

[8]  D. Hayes.  An examination of biorefining processes, catalysts and challenges , 2009 .

[9]  N. Essayem,et al.  Cellulose Reactivity in Supercritical Methanol in the Presence of Solid Acid Catalysts: Direct Synthesis of Methyl-levulinate , 2011 .

[10]  T. Graedel,et al.  Criticality of non-fuel minerals: a review of major approaches and analyses. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[11]  Zhiqiang Wang,et al.  A stable and effective Ru/polyethersulfone catalyst for levulinic acid hydrogenation to γ-valerolactone in aqueous solution , 2014 .

[12]  B. L. Oliveira,et al.  Sulfonated carbon nanotubes as catalysts for the conversion of levulinic acid into ethyl levulinate , 2014 .

[13]  A. Venugopal,et al.  Hydroxyapatite as a novel support for Ru in the hydrogenation of levulinic acid to γ-valerolactone , 2014 .

[14]  Xia Yang,et al.  Catalytic synthesis of diphenolic acid from levulinic acid over cesium partly substituted Wells–Dawson type heteropolyacid , 2008 .

[15]  E. Mai,et al.  Levulinic acid esterification with ethanol to ethyl levulinate production over solid acid catalysts , 2012 .

[16]  J. Clark,et al.  Solid acids and their use as environmentally friendly catalysts in organic synthesis , 2000 .

[17]  Roger A. Sheldon,et al.  Utilisation of biomass for sustainable fuels and chemicals: Molecules, methods and metrics , 2011 .

[18]  V. S. Patil,et al.  Catalytic upgrading of renewable levulinic acid to ethyl levulinate biodiesel using dodecatungstophosphoric acid supported on desilicated H-ZSM-5 as catalyst , 2013 .

[19]  Juan Carlos Serrano-Ruiz,et al.  Catalytic conversion of renewable biomass resources to fuels and chemicals. , 2010, Annual review of chemical and biomolecular engineering.

[20]  L. Janssen,et al.  Experimental and kinetic modelling studies on the acid-catalysed hydrolysis of the water hyacinth plant to levulinic acid. , 2008, Bioresource technology.

[21]  E. García-Bordejé,et al.  Biobased catalyst in biorefinery processes: Sulphonated hydrothermal carbon for glycerol esterification , 2015 .

[22]  C. Eckert,et al.  Combining the Benefits of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis with Tunable Solvents and Nearcritical Water , 2010, Molecules.

[23]  C. R. Becer,et al.  Lignocellulosic biomass: a sustainable platform for the production of bio-based chemicals and polymers , 2015, 1602.01684.

[24]  Sangkyu Lee,et al.  Selective Bromination of Ketones. A Convenient Synthesis of 5-Aminolevulinic Acid , 1994 .

[25]  Q. Peng,et al.  5‐Aminolevulinic Acid‐Based Photodynamic Therapy: Principles and Experimental Research , 1997, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[26]  Jie Xu,et al.  Conversion of carbohydrate biomass to methyl levulinate with Al2(SO4)3 as a simple, cheap and efficient catalyst , 2014 .

[27]  T. Graedel,et al.  Challenges in Metal Recycling , 2012, Science.

[28]  T. Graedel,et al.  In-use stocks of metals: status and implications. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[29]  V. Pârvulescu,et al.  Ru-based magnetic nanoparticles (MNP) for succinic acid synthesis from levulinic acid , 2013 .

[30]  Lu Lin,et al.  Catalytic Conversion of Cellulose to Levulinic Acid by Metal Chlorides , 2010, Molecules.

[31]  Wolfgang Marquardt,et al.  Selective and flexible transformation of biomass-derived platform chemicals by a multifunctional catalytic system. , 2010, Angewandte Chemie.

[32]  Jean-Paul Lange,et al.  Valeric biofuels: a platform of cellulosic transportation fuels. , 2010, Angewandte Chemie.

[33]  Kai Yan,et al.  Catalytic reactions of gamma-valerolactone: A platform to fuels and value-added chemicals , 2015 .

[34]  V. Bokade,et al.  Synthesis of ethyl acetate by esterification of acetic acid with ethanol over a heteropolyacid on montmorillonite K10 , 2010 .

[35]  Thomas E. Graedel,et al.  On the Future Availability of the Energy Metals , 2011 .

[36]  Qinghong Zhang,et al.  Direct transformation of cellulose into methyl and ethyl glucosides in methanol and ethanol media catalyzed by heteropolyacids , 2011 .

[37]  R. Le Van Mao,et al.  AC3B Technology for Direct Liquefaction of Lignocellulosic Biomass: New Concepts of Coupling and Decoupling of Catalytic/Chemical Reactions for Obtaining a Very High Overall Performance , 2012, Catalysis Letters.

[38]  Siglinda Perathoner,et al.  Analysis of the alternative routes in the catalytic transformation of lignocellulosic materials , 2011 .

[39]  Stephanie G. Wettstein,et al.  A roadmap for conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to chemicals and fuels , 2012 .

[40]  V. Bokade,et al.  Esterification of renewable levulinic acid to ethyl levulinate biodiesel catalyzed by highly active and reusable desilicated H‐ZSM‐5 , 2014 .

[41]  M. Galbe,et al.  Pretreatment of lignocellulosic materials for efficient bioethanol production. , 2007, Advances in biochemical engineering/biotechnology.

[42]  Kangnian Fan,et al.  Tunable copper-catalyzed chemoselective hydrogenolysis of biomass-derived γ-valerolactone into 1,4-pentanediol or 2-methyltetrahydrofuran , 2012 .

[43]  N. Essayem,et al.  Synthesis and Applications of Alkyl Levulinates , 2014 .

[44]  A. Riisager,et al.  Zeolite Catalyzed Transformation of Carbohydrates to Alkyl Levulinates , 2013 .

[45]  Jiayou Liao,et al.  Highly selective production of value-added γ-valerolactone from biomass-derived levulinic acid using the robust Pd nanoparticles , 2013 .

[46]  James A. Dumesic,et al.  Integrated conversion of hemicellulose and cellulose from lignocellulosic biomass , 2013 .

[47]  Carine E. Chan-Thaw,et al.  New generation biofuels: γ-valerolactone into valeric esters in one pot , 2013 .

[48]  A. Perosa,et al.  Upgrading of Levulinic Acid with Dimethylcarbonate as Solvent/Reagent , 2013 .

[49]  Juan Carlos Serrano-Ruiz,et al.  Transformations of biomass-derived platform molecules: from high added-value chemicals to fuels via aqueous-phase processing. , 2011, Chemical Society reviews.

[50]  A. Broekhuis,et al.  Experimental and kinetic modeling studies on the biphasic hydrogenation of levulinic acid to γ-valerolactone using a homogeneous water-soluble Ru–(TPPTS) catalyst , 2011 .

[51]  Kai Leonhard,et al.  Cellulose and hemicellulose valorisation: an integrated challenge of catalysis and reaction engineering , 2014 .

[52]  F. Senocq,et al.  Homogeneous catalysis in water Part II. Synthesis and characterization of ruthenium water-soluble complexes , 1992 .

[53]  T. Graedel,et al.  Anthropogenic cycles of the elements: a critical review. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[54]  Dirk Weuster-Botz,et al.  Succinic acid from renewable resources as a C4 building-block chemical—a review of the catalytic possibilities in aqueous media , 2009 .

[55]  D. M. Alonso,et al.  Production of liquid hydrocarbon transportation fuels by oligomerization of biomass-derived C9 alkenes , 2010 .

[56]  S. Dutta,et al.  Efficient, metal-free production of succinic acid by oxidation of biomass-derived levulinic acid with hydrogen peroxide , 2015 .

[57]  Jinzhu Chen,et al.  Conversion of fructose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and alkyl levulinates catalyzed by sulfonic acid-functionalized carbon materials , 2013 .

[58]  Jie Wang,et al.  Zirconium–Beta zeolite as a robust catalyst for the transformation of levulinic acid to γ-valerolactone via Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction , 2014 .

[59]  G. Yadav.  Synergism of Clay and Heteropoly Acids as Nano-Catalysts for the Development of Green Processes with Potential Industrial Applications , 2005 .

[60]  Lu Lin,et al.  Synthesis, isolation and characterization of methyl levulinate from cellulose catalyzed by extremely low concentration acid , 2013 .

[61]  P. Vázquez,et al.  Catalytic upgrading of levulinic acid to ethyl levulinate using reusable silica-included Wells-Dawson heteropolyacid as catalyst , 2012 .

[62]  Jean-Paul Lange,et al.  Furfural--a promising platform for lignocellulosic biofuels. , 2012, ChemSusChem.

[63]  J. Leahy,et al.  Synthesis and characterization of sulfated TiO2 nanorods and ZrO2/TiO2 nanocomposites for the esterification of biobased organic acid. , 2012, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[64]  Regina Palkovits,et al.  Solvent-free γ-valerolactone hydrogenation to 2-methyltetrahydrofuran catalysed by Ru/C: a reaction network analysis , 2014 .

[65]  Regina Palkovits,et al.  Development of heterogeneous catalysts for the conversion of levulinic acid to γ-valerolactone. , 2012, ChemSusChem.

[66]  Kexin Li,et al.  Mesoporous H3PW12O40-silica composite: Efficient and reusable solid acid catalyst for the synthesis of diphenolic acid from levulinic acid , 2008 .

[67]  Aicheng Chen,et al.  Selective hydrogenation of furfural and levulinic acid to biofuels on the ecofriendly Cu–Fe catalyst , 2014 .

[68]  A. Idris,et al.  Recent advances in production of succinic acid from lignocellulosic biomass , 2013, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[69]  Shigeru Shimada,et al.  Mixed-acid systems for the catalytic synthesis of methyl levulinate from cellulose , 2011 .

[70]  James G. Stevens,et al.  Maximising opportunities in supercritical chemistry: the continuous conversion of levulinic acid to gamma-valerolactone in CO(2). , 2007, Chemical communications.

[71]  J. Coleman,et al.  Liquid phase production of graphene by exfoliation of graphite in surfactant/water solutions , 2008, 0809.2690.

[72]  Zhanquan Zhang,et al.  Efficient and selective alcoholysis of furfuryl alcohol to alkyl levulinates catalyzed by double SO3H-functionalized ionic liquids , 2014 .

[73]  D. M. Alonso,et al.  Selective Production of Levulinic Acid from Furfuryl Alcohol in THF Solvent Systems over H-ZSM-5 , 2015 .

[74]  J. Dumesic,et al.  Catalytic routes for the conversion of biomass into liquid hydrocarbon transportation fuels , 2011 .

[75]  Martyn Pillinger,et al.  Production of biomass-derived furanic ethers and levulinate esters using heterogeneous acid catalysts , 2013 .

[76]  G. Tompsett,et al.  Design of solid acid catalysts for aqueous-phase dehydration of carbohydrates: The role of Lewis and Bronsted acid sites , 2011 .

[77]  Aicheng Chen,et al.  One-step synthesis of mesoporous H4SiW12O40-SiO2 catalysts for the production of methyl and ethyl levulinate biodiesel , 2013 .

[78]  Yukihiro Kayama.  Battelle Memorial Institute and R&D Outsourcing , 1999 .

[79]  István T. Horváth,et al.  γ-Valerolactone—a sustainable liquid for energy and carbon-based chemicals , 2008 .

[80]  C. Rode,et al.  Cu–ZrO2 nanocomposite catalyst for selective hydrogenation of levulinic acid and its ester to γ-valerolactone , 2012 .

[81]  S. F. Macdonald,et al.  Methyl 5-Bromolevulinate , 1974 .

[82]  R. Smith,et al.  Catalytical conversion of fructose and glucose into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in hot compressed water by microwave heating , 2008 .

[83]  Hongzhang Chen,et al.  Production of levulinic acid from steam exploded rice straw via solid superacid, S2O8(2-)/ZrO2-SiO2-Sm2O3. , 2011, Bioresource technology.

[84]  Christos T. Maravelias,et al.  Catalytic conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to fuels: Process development and technoeconomic evaluation , 2012 .

[85]  Xuezheng Liang,et al.  Synthesis of a novel multi –SO3H functionalized ionic liquid and its catalytic activities for biodiesel synthesis , 2010 .

[86]  Satoshi Kubo,et al.  Direct preparation of butyl levulinate by a single solvolysis process of cellulose , 2013, Journal of Wood Science.

[87]  Keli Chen,et al.  Facile and Efficient Conversion of Furfuryl Alcohol into n-Butyl Levulinate Catalyzed by Extremely Low Acid Concentration , 2014 .

[88]  Xianhai Zeng,et al.  Production of γ-valerolactone from lignocellulosic biomass for sustainable fuels and chemicals supply , 2014 .

[89]  James A. Dumesic,et al.  Gamma-valerolactone, a sustainable platform molecule derived from lignocellulosic biomass , 2013 .

[90]  Hans-Jörg Bart,et al.  Kinetics of esterification of levulinic acid with n-butanol by homogeneous catalysis , 1994 .

[91]  Anders Riisager,et al.  Solid acid catalysed formation of ethyl levulinate and ethyl glucopyranoside from mono- and disaccharides , 2012 .

[92]  István T. Horváth,et al.  Catalytic Conversion of Fructose to γ-Valerolactone in γ-Valerolactone , 2012 .

[93]  M. Winterbottom,et al.  Crucial parameters in the selective biphasic hydrogenation of cinnamaldehyde by biphasic Ru-TPPTS and RhCl(TPPTS)3 catalysts , 2007 .

[94]  Ying Zhang,et al.  Catalytic Conversion of Cellulose into Levulinic Acid by a Sulfonated Chloromethyl Polystyrene Solid Acid Catalyst , 2014 .

[95]  D. Petraccone,et al.  New Process for the Acid-Catalyzed Conversion of Cellulosic Biomass (AC3B) into Alkyl Levulinates and Other Esters Using a Unique One-Pot System of Reaction and Product Extraction , 2011 .

[96]  Juan Carlos Serrano-Ruiz,et al.  Conversion of cellulose to hydrocarbon fuels by progressive removal of oxygen , 2010 .

[97]  G. G. Stokes.  "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[98]  Amruta Morone,et al.  Levulinic acid production from renewable waste resources: Bottlenecks, potential remedies, advancements and applications , 2015 .

[99]  R. Palkovits,et al.  Heteropoly acids as efficient acid catalysts in the one-step conversion of cellulose to sugar alcohols. , 2011, Chemical communications.

[100]  Aicheng Chen,et al.  Efficient hydrogenation of biomass-derived furfural and levulinic acid on the facilely synthesized noble-metal-free Cu–Cr catalyst , 2013 .

[101]  S. Xiao,et al.  Efficient conversion of cellulose into biofuel precursor 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in dimethyl sulfoxide-ionic liquid mixtures. , 2014, Bioresource technology.

[102]  C. Vieille,et al.  13C-metabolic flux analysis of Actinobacillus succinogenes fermentative metabolism at different NaHCO3 and H2 concentrations. , 2008, Metabolic engineering.

[103]  Anders Riisager,et al.  Conversion of mono- and disaccharides to ethyl levulinate and ethyl pyranoside with sulfonic acid-functionalized ionic liquids. , 2011, ChemSusChem.

[104]  Jean-Paul Lange,et al.  Conversion of furfuryl alcohol into ethyl levulinate using solid acid catalysts. , 2009, ChemSusChem.

[105]  D. Dutta,et al.  Heteropoly acid supported modified Montmorillonite clay: An effective catalyst for the esterification of acetic acid with sec-butanol , 2010 .

[106]  S. Lee,et al.  Production of succinic acid by bacterial fermentation , 2006 .

[107]  Jiayu Xin,et al.  Efficient Conversion of α-Angelica Lactone into γ-Valerolactone with Ionic Liquids at Room Temperature , 2014 .

[108]  Klaus Garves,et al.  Acid Catalyzed Degradation of Cellulose in Alcohols , 1988 .

[109]  Bo Mattiasson,et al.  Wax esters produced by solvent-free energy-efficient enzymatic synthesis and their applicability as wood coatings , 2005 .

[110]  István T. Horváth,et al.  Catalytic Conversion of Fructose, Glucose, and Sucrose to 5-(Hydroxymethyl)furfural and Levulinic and Formic Acids in γ-Valerolactone As a Green Solvent , 2014 .

[111]  Qinghong Zhang,et al.  Catalytic transformations of cellulose and its derived carbohydrates into 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, levulinic acid, and lactic acid , 2014, Science China Chemistry.

[112]  Dana Sherman,et al.  Doctor of philosophy , 2018, Canadian Medical Association Journal.

[113]  H. Kung,et al.  Chemical conversion of biomass-derived hexose sugars to levulinic acid over sulfonic acid-functionalized graphene oxide catalysts , 2013 .

[114]  T. Masuda,et al.  Chemical synthesis of fully biomass-based poly(butylene succinate) from inedible-biomass-based furfural and evaluation of its biomass carbon ratio. , 2010, Biomacromolecules.

[115]  Avelino Corma,et al.  Conversion of biomass platform molecules into fuel additives and liquid hydrocarbon fuels , 2014 .

[116]  Raimo Alén,et al.  Analytical Methods in Wood Chemistry, Pulping, and Papermaking , 1999, Springer Series in Wood Science.

[117]  K. Gibson,et al.  Initial stages in the biosynthesis of porphyrins. 2. The formation of delta-aminolaevulic acid from glycine and succinyl-coenzyme A by particles from chicken erythrocytes. , 1958, The Biochemical journal.

[118]  R. Luque,et al.  Hydrodeoxygenation processes: advances on catalytic transformations of biomass-derived platform chemicals into hydrocarbon fuels. , 2015, Bioresource technology.

[119]  Yong Wang,et al.  Production of levulinic acid and use as a platform chemical for derived products , 2000 .

[120]  C. Rode,et al.  Single pot conversion of furfuryl alcohol to levulinic esters and γ-valerolactone in the presence of sulfonic acid functionalized ILs and metal catalysts , 2013 .

[121]  G. Morales,et al.  Efficient conversion of levulinic acid into alkyl levulinates catalyzed by sulfonic mesostructured silicas , 2013 .

[122]  A. Fukuoka,et al.  Catalytic conversion of cellulose into sugar alcohols. , 2006, Angewandte Chemie.

[123]  J. Moulijn,et al.  Alkaline-mediated mesoporous mordenite zeolites for acid-catalyzed conversions , 2007 .

[124]  Stephanie G. Wettstein,et al.  Direct conversion of cellulose to levulinic acid and gamma-valerolactone using solid acid catalysts , 2013 .

[125]  David C. Forbes,et al.  Novel Brønsted acidic ionic liquids and their use as dual solvent-catalysts. , 2002, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[126]  Rajeev S. Assary,et al.  Theoretical studies for the formation of γ-valero-lactone from levulinic acid and formic acid by homogeneous catalysis , 2012 .

[127]  Mark W. Grinstaff,et al.  Dendritic polymers composed of glycerol and succinic acid: Synthetic methodologies and medical applications , 2004 .

[128]  David K. Johnson,et al.  Top Value-Added Chemicals from Biomass - Volume II—Results of Screening for Potential Candidates from Biorefinery Lignin , 2007 .

[129]  B. Weckhuysen,et al.  The catalytic valorization of lignin for the production of renewable chemicals. , 2010, Chemical reviews.

[130]  J. Moore,et al.  Homo- and Co-Polycarbonates and Blends Derived from Diphenolic Acid , 2001 .

[131]  D. R. Brown,et al.  Conformal sulfated zirconia monolayer catalysts for the one-pot synthesis of ethyl levulinate from glucose. , 2014, Chemical communications.

[132]  F. Du,et al.  Kinetics of Glucose Ethanolysis Catalyzed by Extremely Low Sulfuric Acid in Ethanol Medium , 2014 .

[133]  A. Beale,et al.  Ruthenium-catalyzed hydrogenation of levulinic acid: Influence of the support and solvent on catalyst selectivity and stability , 2013 .

[134]  T. Fujitani,et al.  Esterification of levulinic acid with ethanol over sulfated Si-doped ZrO2 solid acid catalyst: Study of the structure–activity relationships , 2014 .

[135]  Zehui Zhang,et al.  Efficient conversion of furfuryl alcohol into alkyl levulinates catalyzed by an organic-inorganic hybrid solid acid catalyst. , 2011, ChemSusChem.

[136]  D. M. Alonso,et al.  Catalytic conversion of biomass to biofuels , 2010 .

[137]  J. Coleman,et al.  High-yield production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite. , 2008, Nature nanotechnology.

[138]  Vijaya Raghavan,et al.  Review: Sustainable production of hydroxymethylfurfural and levulinic acid: Challenges and opportunities , 2015 .

[139]  W. Dehaen,et al.  Thiol-promoted catalytic synthesis of diphenolic acid with sulfonated hyperbranched poly(arylene oxindole)s. , 2012, Chemical communications.

[140]  David Martin Alonso,et al.  Reactive extraction of levulinate esters and conversion to γ-valerolactone for production of liquid fuels. , 2011, ChemSusChem.

[141]  James A. Dumesic,et al.  Production of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural by dehydration of biomass-derived mono- and poly-saccharides , 2007 .

[142]  S. Rocha,et al.  Conversion of furfuryl alcohol to ethyl levulinate using porous aluminosilicate acid catalysts , 2013 .

[143]  Guosheng Wu,et al.  Clean and selective production of γ-valerolactone from biomass-derived levulinic acid catalyzed by recyclable Pd nanoparticle catalyst , 2014 .

[144]  D. Adhikari,et al.  Effective catalytic conversion of cellulose into high yields of methyl glucosides over sulfonated carbon based catalyst. , 2012, Bioresource technology.

[145]  Lu Lin,et al.  Extremely low sulfuric acid catalyst system for synthesis of methyl levulinate from glucose , 2012 .

[146]  A. B. Fuertes,et al.  Sulfonated mesoporous silica–carbon composites and their use as solid acid catalysts , 2012 .

[147]  K. Ebitani,et al.  Metal-free oxidative synthesis of succinic acid from biomass-derived furan compounds using a solid acid catalyst with hydrogen peroxide , 2013 .

[148]  Indrakant V. Borkar,et al.  Kinetic Modeling of Immobilized Lipase Catalysis in Synthesis of n-Butyl Levulinate† , 2008 .

[149]  J. Coleman.  Liquid exfoliation of defect-free graphene. , 2013, Accounts of chemical research.

[150]  N. Pinna,et al.  Solid acids with SO3H groups and tunable surface properties , 2014 .

[151]  B. Weckhuysen,et al.  Selective, one-pot catalytic conversion of levulinic acid to pentanoic acid over Ru/H-ZSM5 , 2014 .

[152]  V. Bokade,et al.  Esterification of levulinic acid to ethyl levulinate over bimodal micro–mesoporous H/BEA zeolite derivatives , 2014 .

[153]  Chun Chang,et al.  Levulinic acid production from wheat straw. , 2007, Bioresource technology.

[154]  A. Dalai,et al.  Esterification of Levulinic Acid to n-Butyl Levulinate Over Various Acidic Zeolites , 2013, Catalysis Letters.

[155]  J. Takemoto,et al.  Biosynthesis of δ-aminolevulinic acid in Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides , 1981 .

[156]  M. Hanna,et al.  Levulinic acid production based on extrusion and pressurized batch reaction , 2002 .

[157]  William F. Smith,et al.  Ethyl levulinate: a potential bio-based diluent for biodiesel which improves cold flow properties. , 2011 .

[158]  Darryn W. Rackemann,et al.  The conversion of lignocellulosics to levulinic acid , 2011 .

[159]  S. Coutts,et al.  Esterification of levulinic acid into ethyl levulinate catalysed by sulfonated hydrothermal carbons , 2014 .

[160]  Inaki Gandarias,et al.  Hydrodeoxygenation of the angelica lactone dimer, a cellulose-based feedstock: simple, high-yield synthesis of branched C7 -C10 gasoline-like hydrocarbons. , 2014, Angewandte Chemie.

[161]  Joseph J. Bozell,et al.  Technology development for the production of biobased products from biorefinery carbohydrates—the US Department of Energy’s “Top 10” revisited , 2010 .

[162]  J. Dumesic,et al.  Liquid-phase catalytic transfer hydrogenation and cyclization of levulinic acid and its esters to γ-valerolactone over metal oxide catalysts. , 2011, Chemical communications.

[163]  L. Manzer,et al.  Catalytic synthesis of α-methylene-γ-valerolactone: a biomass-derived acrylic monomer , 2004 .

[164]  Christos T. Maravelias,et al.  Production of renewable jet fuel range alkanes and commodity chemicals from integrated catalytic processing of biomass , 2014 .

[165]  Juventino J. García,et al.  Hydrogenation of levulinic acid to γ-valerolactone using ruthenium nanoparticles , 2013 .

[166]  J. Clark,et al.  Versatile mesoporous carbonaceous materials for acid catalysis. , 2007, Chemical communications.

[167]  Bimo Ario Tejo,et al.  Optimized enzymatic synthesis of levulinate ester in solvent-free system , 2010 .

[168]  Ferdi Schüth,et al.  Acid hydrolysis of cellulose as the entry point into biorefinery schemes. , 2009, ChemSusChem.