Global chemical fate of α‐hexachlorocyclohexane. 1. Evaluation of a global distribution model

Vertical atmospheric layering is included in a previously described, zonally averaged global multimedia distribution model. This model is used to simulate the fate of α-hexachlorocyclohexane (α-HCH), the main ingredient of the technical HCH pesticide mixture, for the 50 years of its large-scale use (1947-1997). Worldwide historic emission estimates are compiled, assigned to 10 climate zones, and used as input in model calculations. The performance of the model is evaluated by comparing calculated and measured concentrations in the atmosphere and seawater. A major focus is on the arctic and northern temperate environment, and emphasis is also placed on absolute levels, time trends, latitudinal profiles, and air-water exchange. In general, simulated and observed concentrations agree within one order of magnitude. Deviations are explained by the zonal averaging characteristics of the model and uncertainties associated with the environmental degradation rates of α-HCH. In both model results and observations, the dramatic decrease in the global emission of α-HCH is reflected in rapidly decreasing concentrations in the atmosphere and seawater, except in the Arctic Ocean, which apparently is the last refuge for α-HCH in the global environment. The model thus provides an illustration of the response characteristics of the global system to the reduced emissions of α-HCH. Its application to other chemicals with reduced emission is discussed.

[1]  L. Jantunen,et al.  Air‐water gas exchange of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and the enantiomers of α‐HCH in Arctic regions , 1996 .

[2]  F. Wania.  Global fractionation and cold condensation of low volatility organochlorine compounds in polar regions , 1993 .

[3]  K. Ballschmiter,et al.  Air-water equilibrium of hexachlorocyclohexanes and chloromethoxybenzenes in the north and South atlantic. , 1995, Environmental science & technology.

[4]  A. P. Altshuller.  Ambient Air Hydroxyl Radical Concentrations: Measurements and Model Predictions , 1989 .

[5]  J. Haugen,et al.  Ambient air levels of persistent organochlorines in spring 1992 at Spitsbergen and the Norwegian mainland: comparison with 1984 results and quality control measures , 1995 .

[6]  J. Haugen,et al.  Long term measurements of wet deposition and precipitation scavenging of hexachlorocyclohexanes in Southern Norway , 1999 .

[7]  Marco Vighi,et al.  Role of plant biomass in the global environmental partitioning of chlorinated hydrocarbons , 1991 .

[8]  Frank Wania,et al.  Peer reviewed: tracking the distribution of persistent organic pollutants. , 1996, Environmental science & technology.

[9]  Karlheinz Ballschmiter.  Transport and Fate of Organic Compounds in the Global Environment , 1992 .

[10]  B. Jansson,et al.  Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in the atmosphere of Southern Sweden , 1987 .

[11]  L. McConnell,et al.  Gas exchange of hexachlorocyclohexane in the Great Lakes , 1993 .

[12]  R. Hoff,et al.  Annual cycle of polychlorinated biphenyls and organohalogen pesticides in air in southern Ontario. 1. Air concentration data , 1992 .

[13]  S. Tanabe,et al.  Seasonal variations of organochlorine insecticide residues in air from Porto Novo, South India. , 1989, Environmental pollution.

[14]  Y. F. Li,et al.  Global hexachlorocyclohexane use trends and their impact on the Arctic atmospheric environment , 1998 .

[15]  E. Goldberg.  Synthetic organohalides in the sea , 1975, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences.

[16]  Ø. Hov,et al.  A two‐dimensional zonally averaged transport model including convective motions and a new strategy for the numerical solution , 1993 .

[17]  N. Johnson,et al.  On the spatial and temporal variations in atmospheric concentrations of hexachlorobenzene and hexachlorocyclohexane isomers at several locations in the province of Ontario, Canada , 1992 .

[18]  J. Barnett,et al.  Zonal mean temperature, pressure, zonal wind and geopotential height as functions of latitude , 1990 .

[19]  S. Tanabe,et al.  Distribution of persistent organochlorines in the oceanic air and surface seawater and the role of ocean on their global transport and fate , 1993 .

[20]  Martin Schlabach,et al.  Hexachlorocyclohexanes in Air in Southern Norway. Temporal Variation, Source Allocation, and Temperature Dependence , 1998 .

[21]  S. Tanabe,et al.  Chlorinated hydrocarbons in the North Pacific and Indian Oceans , 1980 .

[22]  Yi-Fan Li,et al.  Global HCH Usage with 1° × 1° Longitude/Latitude Resolution , 1996 .

[23]  R. A. Plumb,et al.  The Zonally Averaged Transport Characteristics of the GFDL General Circulation/Transport Model , 1987 .

[24]  R. Hites,et al.  Global distribution of persistent organochlorine compounds. , 1995, Science.

[25]  T. Bidleman,et al.  Base hydrolysis of .alpha.- and .gamma.-hexachlorocyclohexanes , 1993 .

[26]  Frank Wania,et al.  Modelling the global distribution of toxaphene: A discussion of feasibility and desirability , 1993 .

[27]  Frank Wania,et al.  A global distribution model for persistent organic chemicals , 1995 .

[28]  J. Kucklick,et al.  Determination of Henry's law constants for hexachlorocyclohexanes in distilled water and artificial seawater as a function of temperature , 1991 .

[29]  R. Hites,et al.  OH Radical Reactions: The Major Removal Pathway for Polychlorinated Biphenyls from the Atmosphere , 1996 .

[30]  Y. F. Li,et al.  Technical Hexachlorocyclohexane Use Trends in China and Their Impact on the Environment , 1998, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[31]  Ø. Hov,et al.  A model strategy for the simulation of chlorinated hydrocarbon distributions in the global environment , 1996 .

[32]  J. Pankow,et al.  Trace organic compounds in rain—III. Particle scavenging of neutral organic compounds , 1985 .

[33]  M. Oehme,et al.  The long-range transport of organic pollutants to the Arctic , 1984 .

[34]  L. Jantunen,et al.  Correction to “Air‐water gas exchange of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and the enantiomers of α‐HCH in arctic regions” by Liisa M. Jantunen and Terry Bidleman , 1997 .

[35]  D. Gregor,et al.  Enantioselective Breakdown of .alpha.-Hexachlorocyclohexane in a Small Arctic Lake and its Watershed. , 1995, Environmental science & technology.

[36]  J. Ridal,et al.  Seasonality of Air−Water Fluxes of Hexachlorocyclohexanes in Lake Ontario , 1996 .

[37]  L. Barrie,et al.  Seasonality in Exchange of Organochlorines between Arctic Air and Seawater , 1997 .

[38]  L. Jantunen,et al.  Reversal of the Air-Water Gas Exchange Direction of Hexachlorocyclohexanes in the Bering and Chukchi Seas: 1993 versus 1988. , 1995, Environmental science & technology.

[39]  P. Ludwig,et al.  Gas chromatographic separation of the enantiomers of marine pollutants. 4. Fate of hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in the Baltic and North Sea , 1992 .

[40]  T. Bidleman,et al.  Determination of vapor pressures for nonpolar and semipolar organic compounds from gas chromatographic retention data , 1990 .

[41]  C. Kaushik,et al.  Organochloride insecticide residues in air in Delhi, India , 1987 .

[42]  D Mackay,et al.  TRAKING THE DISTRIBUTION OF PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS , 1996 .

[43]  Phil Fellin,et al.  Decline of hexachlorocyclohexane in the Arctic atmosphere and reversal of air‐sea gas exchange , 1995 .

[44]  S. Tanabe,et al.  Vertical transport and residence time of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the open ocean water column , 1983 .