Location of Resistance Arteries

Thickening and narrowing of resistance arteries must, by definition, be key elements in the control of the cardiovascular system. However, the precise location of resistance arteries is difficult to establish. This is due to technical problems related to the small size of the vessels, to the measurement conditions disturbing the hemodynamics, and to the status of the animals while the measurements are being made. Furthermore, due to large data heterogeneity, previous studies do not give unequivocal information concerning the pressure profile in the vascular system, or the level of arterial diameter responsible for blood flow. Finally, and importantly, there is little evidence regarding the conscious state, which is thus a major limitation to understanding the mechanisms of blood distribution and the pathogenesis for disease processes such as genetic hypertension. This review first summarizes briefly the techniques which are available for identifying resistance arteries and the inherent technical limitations which are involved. The review then provides a critical assessment of the available data, both as regards measurement of local blood pressures and as regards control of peripheral resistance. The evidence suggests that, at least as regards rats and other small animals, feed arteries as well as more distal microvessels contribute to the maintenance and regulation of blood flow and resistance. Evidence from larger animals is however lacking, and it is thus unclear if resistance function should be based on arterial diameter or anatomic location. Furthermore, evidence concerning man is not available. We therefore conclude the review with suggestions for future research in this area.

[1]  H. Bohlen,et al.  Microvascular adaptation in the cerebral cortex of adult spontaneously hypertensive rats. , 1984, Hypertension.

[2]  M. Marcus,et al.  Coronary microvascular resistance in hypertensive cats. , 1991, Circulation research.

[3]  A. Shoukas,et al.  Pial microvascular hemodynamics in anemia. , 1993, The American journal of physiology.

[4]  P. Hutchins,et al.  Comparison of microvascular pressures in normal and spontaneously hypertensive rats. , 1977, Microvascular research.

[5]  R. Tuma,et al.  Influence of oxygen on perfused capillary density and capillary red cell velocity in rabbit skeletal muscle. , 1980, Microvascular research.

[6]  M. J. Davis.  Control of bat wing capillary pressure and blood flow during reduced perfusion pressure. , 1988, The American journal of physiology.

[7]  M. Marcus,et al.  Microvascular distribution of coronary vascular resistance in beating left ventricle. , 1986, The American journal of physiology.

[8]  G. Meininger,et al.  Altered cremaster muscle hemodynamics due to disruption of the deferential feed vessels. , 1990, Microvascular research.

[9]  F. Abboud.  Control of the various components of the peripheral vasculature. , 1972, Federation proceedings.

[10]  P. Johnson,et al.  Diameter changes in arteriolar networks of contracting skeletal muscle. , 1991, The American journal of physiology.

[11]  M. Mulvany,et al.  Mesenteric arcade arteries contribute substantially to vascular resistance in conscious rats. , 1993, Journal of Vascular Research.

[12]  B. St,et al.  Effect of vasodilation and vasoconstriction on microvascular pressures in skeletal muscle. , 1991 .

[13]  B. Duling,et al.  Communication Between Feed Arteries and Microvessels in Hamster Striated Muscle: Segmental Vascular Responses Are Functionally Coordinated , 1986, Circulation research.

[14]  S. D. House,et al.  Microvascular pressure in venules of skeletal muscle during arterial pressure reduction. , 1986, The American journal of physiology.

[15]  M. Marcus,et al.  Effects of atherosclerosis on the coronary microcirculation. , 1990, The American journal of physiology.

[16]  P. Hutchins,et al.  Anesthetic effects on hemodynamics of spontaneously hypertensive and Wistar-Kyoto rats. , 1980, The American journal of physiology.

[17]  G. Meininger,et al.  Effect of vasodilation and vasoconstriction on microvascular pressures in skeletal muscle. , 1991, Microcirculation, endothelium, and lymphatics.

[18]  M. Mulvany,et al.  Intestinal blood flow is controlled by both feed arteries and microcirculatory resistance vessels in freely moving rats. , 1997, The Journal of physiology.

[19]  H. Bohlen,et al.  Microvascular pressures in rat intestinal muscle during direct nerve stimulation. , 1979, Microvascular research.

[20]  B. Wasan,et al.  Vascular network changes in the retina with age and hypertension , 1995, Journal of hypertension.

[21]  H. Granger,et al.  Hemodynamic characteristics of the intestinal microcirculation in renal hypertension. , 1986, Hypertension.

[22]  C. Wiederhielm,et al.  Microvascular, lymphatic, and tissue pressures in the unanesthetized mammal. , 1973, The American journal of physiology.

[23]  A. Taylor,et al.  Microvascular pressure profile of serosal vessels of rat trachea. , 1992, The American journal of physiology.

[24]  B. Folkow.  Physiological aspects of primary hypertension. , 1982, Physiological reviews.

[25]  M. Mulvany,et al.  Perindopril changes the mesenteric pressure profile of conscious hypertensive and normotensive rats. , 1994, Hypertension.

[26]  Duling Br,et al.  Oxygen tension: dependent or independent variable in local control of blood flow? , 1975, Federation proceedings.

[27]  H. Bohlen.  Intestinal microvascular adaptation during maturation of spontaneously hypertensive rats. , 1983, Hypertension.

[28]  G. Meininger.  Responses of sequentially branching macro- and microvessels during reactive hyperemia in skeletal muscle. , 1987, Microvascular research.

[29]  D. Slaaf,et al.  Pressure regulation in muscle of unanesthetized bats. , 1987, Microvascular research.

[30]  M. Mulvany,et al.  Structure and function of small arteries. , 1990, Physiological reviews.

[31]  R. F. Rushmer,et al.  PULSATILE PRESSURES IN THE MICROCIRCULATION OF FROG'S MESENTERY. , 1964, The American journal of physiology.

[32]  A R Hargens,et al.  Direct measurement of capillary blood pressure in the human lip. , 1993, Journal of applied physiology.

[33]  T. E. Sweeney,et al.  Microvascular pressure distribution in the hamster testis. , 1991, The American journal of physiology.

[34]  A Method for Determining Segmental Resistances in the Microcirculation from Pressure‐Flow Measurements , 1977, Circulation research.

[35]  B. Zweifach,et al.  Quantitative Studies of Microcirculatory Structure and Function: II. Direct Measurement of Capillary Pressure in Splanchnic Mesenteric Vessels , 1974, Circulation research.

[36]  H. Bohlen,et al.  Active and passive arteriolar regulation in spontaneously hypertensive rats. , 1994, Hypertension.

[37]  H. Bohlen.  Enhanced cerebral vascular regulation occurs by age 4 to 5 weeks in spontaneously hypertensive rats. , 1987, Hypertension.

[38]  D. Heistad,et al.  Effects of vasodilator stimuli on resistance of large and small cerebral vessels. , 1986, The American journal of physiology.

[39]  J. Scott,et al.  Effect of potassium on small and large blood vessels of the dog forelimb. , 1959, The American journal of physiology.

[40]  G. Schmid-Schönbein,et al.  Penetration of the systemic blood pressure into the microvasculature of rat skeletal muscle. , 1991, Microvascular research.

[41]  J. M. Lash,et al.  Contribution of arterial feed vessels to skeletal muscle functional hyperemia. , 1994, Journal of applied physiology.

[42]  G. Grimby,et al.  Adaptive structural changes of the vascular walls in hypertension and their relation to the control of the peripheral resistance. , 1958, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[43]  R W Gore,et al.  Vascular anatomy and hydrostatic pressure profile in the hamster cheek pouch. , 1986, The American journal of physiology.

[44]  D. Heistad,et al.  Effects of arginine vasopressin on cerebral microvascular pressure. , 1988, The American journal of physiology.

[45]  P. Grände,et al.  Site of autoregulatory reactions in the vascular bed of cat skeletal muscle as determined with a new technique for segmental vascular resistance recordings. , 1988, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[46]  W. Chilian,et al.  Microvascular pressures and resistances in the left ventricular subepicardium and subendocardium. , 1991, Circulation research.

[47]  I. G. Joshua,et al.  Distributions of microvascular pressure in skeletal muscle of one-kidney, one clip, two-kidney, one clip, and deoxycorticosterone-salt hypertensive rats. , 1984, Hypertension.

[48]  M. Mulvany,et al.  Mesenteric blood pressure profile of conscious, freely moving rats. , 1995, The Journal of physiology.

[49]  M. Mulvany.  The fourth Sir George Pickering memorial lecture. The structure of the resistance vasculature in essential hypertension. , 1987, Journal of hypertension.

[50]  B. Zweifach,et al.  Microvascular pressure distribution in skeletal muscle and the effect of vasodilation. , 1975, The American journal of physiology.

[51]  B. Folkow.  "Structural factor" in primary and secondary hypertension. , 1990, Hypertension.

[52]  M. Mulvany,et al.  Responses of femoral resistance vessels to angiotensin in vitro. , 1987, European journal of pharmacology.

[53]  S. Segal,et al.  Feed artery role in blood flow control to rat hindlimb skeletal muscles. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[54]  D. Heistad,et al.  Effects of sympathetic stimulation and changes in arterial pressure on segmental resistance of cerebral vessels in rabbits and cats. , 1983, Circulation research.

[55]  A. Lever.  Slow pressor mechanisms in hypertension: a role for hypertrophy of resistance vessels? , 1986, Journal of hypertension.

[56]  J. Marshall,et al.  Direct observations of effects of baroreceptor stimulation on mesenteric circulation of the rat. , 1988, The Journal of physiology.

[57]  A. Shore,et al.  Capillary pressure, pulse pressure amplitude, and pressure waveform in healthy volunteers. , 1995, The American journal of physiology.

[58]  M. Todd,et al.  Cerebral blood flow during hemodilution and hypoxia in rats : role of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. , 1999, Stroke.

[59]  A. Shore,et al.  The effect of acetylcholine on finger capillary pressure and capillary flow in healthy volunteers. , 1996, The Journal of physiology.

[60]  B. Zweifach,et al.  Pre- and postcapillary resistances in cat mesentery. , 1974, Microvascular research.

[61]  H. Bohlen,et al.  Microvascular pressures in rat intestinal muscle and mucosal villi. , 1977, The American journal of physiology.

[62]  S. L. Harper.  Antihypertensive drug therapy prevents cerebral microvascular abnormalities in hypertensive rats. , 1987, Circulation research.

[63]  D. Heistad,et al.  Effects of Chronic Hypertension and Sympathetic Nerves on the Cerebral Microvasculature of Stroke‐Prone Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats , 1984, Circulation research.

[64]  P. Hamar,et al.  Hemodynamics of gastric microcirculation in rats. , 1998, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[65]  H. Mayrovitz,et al.  Microvascular pressure, flow, and resistance in spontaneously hypertensive rats. , 1984, Hypertension.

[66]  G. Meininger,et al.  Arteriolar arcades and pressure distribution in cremaster muscle microcirculation. , 1992, Microvascular research.

[67]  P. Johnson,et al.  Changes in resistance vessels during hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation in conscious hamster model. , 1999, The American journal of physiology.