Examination of the child with cerebral palsy.

This article describes the balanced combination of medical history, detailed physical examination, functional assessment, imaging, observational gait analysis, computerized gait analysis, and assessment of patient and family goals that are necessary to prepare treatment plans and accurately assess outcomes of treatment of children with cerebral palsy.

[1]  A. Cacace,et al.  Swallowing disorders in a population of children with cerebral palsy. , 1992, International journal of pediatric otorhinolaryngology.

[2]  P. Rantakallio,et al.  Cerebral palsy and additional handicaps in a 1-year birth cohort from northern Finland--a prospective follow-up study to the age of 14 years. , 1985, Annals of clinical research.

[3]  Y. Okuno,et al.  Mr Imaging of Spastic Diplegia , 1996, Acta radiologica.

[4]  A. Yasuhara,et al.  WHEN DO BRAIN ABNORMALITIES IN CEREBRAL PALSY OCCUR? AN MRI STUDY , 1995, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[5]  D. Morton,et al.  Diagnosis and management of glutaric aciduria type I , 1998, Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease.

[6]  V. Stallings,et al.  NUTRITION‐RELATED GROWTH FAILURE OF CHILDREN WITH QUADRIPLEGIC CEREBRAL PALSY , 1993, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[7]  R. Mcinnes,et al.  Differential diagnosis of cerebral palsy: Lesch-Nyhan syndrome without self-mutilation. , 1984, Canadian Medical Association journal.

[8]  G. Rechavi,et al.  Factor V Leiden and antiphospholipid antibodies are significant risk factors for ischemic stroke in children. , 2000, Stroke.

[9]  W. M. Clarke,et al.  Predictive measures of speech proficiency in cerebral palsied speakers. , 1980, Journal of communication disorders.

[10]  S. Fujimoto,et al.  Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Athetotic Cerebral Palsied Children , 1991, Acta paediatrica Scandinavica.

[11]  C D Drews,et al.  Prevalence of cerebral palsy among ten-year-old children in metropolitan Atlanta, 1985 through 1987. , 1993, The Journal of pediatrics.

[12]  R. Bryan,et al.  MRI in motor delay: important adjunct to classification of cerebral palsy. , 1993, Pediatric neurology.

[13]  P. Ramani,et al.  Cytochrome oxidase deficiency presenting as birth asphyxia , 2000, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[14]  A. Okumura,et al.  MRI findings in patients with spastic cerebral palsy. II: Correlation with type of cerebral palsy. , 2008, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[15]  E. E. Hartmann,et al.  Preschool Vision Screening: Summary of a Task Force Report , 2000, Pediatrics.

[16]  K. Swaiman Pediatric Neurology: Principles and Practice , 1995 .

[17]  D. Antonelli,et al.  Gait analysis of the triceps surae in cerebral palsy. A preoperative and postoperative clinical and electromyographic study. , 1974, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[18]  Kaat Desloovere,et al.  Do dynamic and static clinical measurements correlate with gait analysis parameters in children with cerebral palsy? , 2006, Gait & posture.

[19]  J E Robb,et al.  Reliability and validity of the Visual Gait Assessment Scale for children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy when used by experienced and inexperienced observers. , 2008, Gait & posture.

[20]  H. MacPhail,et al.  Relationships Among Measures of Walking Efficiency, Gross Motor Ability, and Isokinetic Strength In Adolescents With Cerebral Palsy , 1994 .

[21]  J. VanSwearingen,et al.  Reliability and responsiveness of the Barry–Albright Dystonia Scale , 1999, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[22]  Diane L Damiano,et al.  What does the Ashworth scale really measure and are instrumented measures more valid and precise? , 2002, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[23]  L. Wiklund,et al.  Computed Tomography as an Adjunct in Etiological Analysis of Hemiplegic Cerebral Palsy - I: Children Born Preterm , 1991, Neuropediatrics.

[24]  Roslyn N. Boyd,et al.  Objective measurement of clinical findings in the use of botulinum toxin type A for the management of children with cerebral palsy , 1999 .

[25]  F. Kraus,et al.  Fetal thrombotic vasculopathy in the placenta: cerebral thrombi and infarcts, coagulopathies, and cerebral palsy. , 1999, Human pathology.

[26]  D. Trauner,et al.  Disorders of affective and linguistic prosody in children after early unilateral brain damage , 1996, Annals of neurology.

[27]  I. Bruck,et al.  Epilepsy in children with cerebral palsy. , 2001, Arquivos de neuro-psiquiatria.

[28]  N. Gadoth,et al.  3-Methyl glutaconic aciduria in Iraqi Jewish children may be misdiagnosed as cerebral palsy. , 1998, Neuropediatrics.

[29]  Jennifer Dutton,et al.  Interrater and Intrarater Reliability of the Modified Ashworth Scale in Children with Hypertonia , 2005, Pediatric physical therapy : the official publication of the Section on Pediatrics of the American Physical Therapy Association.

[30]  D. Millington,et al.  Glutaric acidemia, type I, missed by newborn screening in an infant with dystonia following promethazine administration. , 2001, Pediatrics.

[31]  O. Thorarensen,et al.  Factor V Leiden mutation: An unrecognized cause of hemiplegic cerebral palsy, neonatal stroke, and placental thrombosis , 1997, Annals of neurology.

[32]  I. Krägeloh-Mann,et al.  BILATERAL SPASTIC CEREBRAL PALSY‐MRI PATHOLOGY AND ORIGIN. ANALYSIS FROM A REPRESENTATIVE SERIES OF 56 CASES , 1995, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[33]  M. Johnston,et al.  Homozygous factor‐V mutation as a genetic cause of perinatal thrombosis and cerebral palsy , 1999, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[34]  Y. Jong,et al.  Etiology, timing of insult, and neuropathology of cerebral palsy evaluated with magnetic resonance imaging. , 1998, Journal of the Formosan Medical Association = Taiwan yi zhi.

[35]  G. Johnson,et al.  A systematic review of the Tardieu Scale for the measurement of spasticity , 2006, Disability and rehabilitation.

[36]  Alfred D. Grant Gait Analysis: Normal and Pathological Function , 2010 .

[37]  K. Nelson,et al.  Cerebrovascular Disorders in Children With the Factor V Leiden Mutation , 2001, Journal of child neurology.

[38]  M. L. Root,et al.  Normal and abnormal function of the foot , 1977 .

[39]  D. Riva,et al.  A case of 3-methylglutaconic aciduria misdiagnosed as cerebral palsy. , 2000, Pediatric neurology.

[40]  S. Walt,et al.  Reliability and validity of the Observational Gait Scale in children with spastic diplegia. , 2003, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[41]  M. Leathley,et al.  Reliability of the Tone Assessment Scale and the modified Ashworth scale as clinical tools for assessing poststroke spasticity. , 1999, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[42]  R. Tervo,et al.  Reliability and validity of the Gillette Functional Assessment Questionnaire as an outcome measure in children with walking disabilities. , 2000, Journal of pediatric orthopedics.

[43]  Adrienne Harvey,et al.  The Functional Mobility Scale (FMS) , 2004, Journal of pediatric orthopedics.

[44]  C L Vaughan,et al.  MUSCLE RESPONSE TO HEAVY RESISTANCE EXERCISE IN CHILDREN WITH SPASTIC CEREBRAL PALSY , 1995, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[45]  Diane L Damiano PhD Pt,et al.  Should we be testing and training muscle strength in cerebral palsy , 2007 .

[46]  H. Haimovici Lower extremity. , 2008, AORN journal.

[47]  Y. Graaf,et al.  THE PREVALENCE OF CEREBRAL VISUAL DISTURBANCE IN CHILDREN WITH CEREBRAL PALSY , 1992, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[48]  G. Frija,et al.  Contribution of computed tomography in the aetiology and prognosis of cerebral palsy in children. , 1989, The British journal of radiology.

[49]  E. Fedrizzi,et al.  Relation between CT patterns, clinical findings and etiological factors in children born at term, affected by congenital hemiparesis. , 1987, Neuropediatrics.

[50]  J R Engsberg,et al.  Quantitative clinical measure of spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. , 1996, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[51]  M. Schwartz,et al.  A new method for estimating joint parameters from motion data. , 2004, Journal of biomechanics.

[52]  K. Taudorf,et al.  CT findings in spastic cerebral palsy. Clinical, aetiological and prognostic aspects. , 1984, Neuropediatrics.

[53]  L. Hartley,et al.  Glutaric aciduria type 1 and nonaccidental head injury. , 2001, Pediatrics.

[54]  M. Hallett,et al.  Classification and definition of disorders causing hypertonia in childhood. , 2003, Pediatrics.

[55]  R. Tervo,et al.  Correlation between physical functioning and gait measures in children with cerebral palsy. , 2002, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[56]  E. Fennell,et al.  Cognitive and Neuropsychological Functioning in Children With Cerebral Palsy , 2001, Journal of child neurology.

[57]  T. Wren,et al.  Gillette Gait Index as a Gait Analysis Summary Measure: Comparison With Qualitative Visual Assessments of Overall Gait , 2007, Journal of pediatric orthopedics.

[58]  C. Greenberg,et al.  Phenotypic variability in glutaric aciduria type I: Report of fourteen cases in five Canadian Indian kindreds. , 1991, The Journal of pediatrics.

[59]  Richard W. Bohannon Is the measurement of muscle strength appropriate in patients with brain lesions? A special communication. , 1989, Physical therapy.

[60]  K. Katz,et al.  Normal Ranges of Popliteal Angle in Children , 1992, Journal of pediatric orthopedics.

[61]  L. Schutte,et al.  Lengths of hamstrings and psoas muscles during crouch gait: Effects of femoral anteversion , 1997, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[62]  Richard W. Bohannon,et al.  Interrater reliability of a modified Ashworth scale of muscle spasticity. , 1987, Physical therapy.

[63]  M. Abel,et al.  Functional outcomes of strength training in spastic cerebral palsy. , 1998, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[64]  H. Chambers,et al.  The effect of valproic acid on blood loss in patients with cerebral palsy. , 1999, Journal of pediatric orthopedics.

[65]  S. R. Myers,et al.  A simple test for hindfoot flexibility in the cavovarus foot. , 1990, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[66]  D. Skuse,et al.  Prevalence of feeding problems and oral motor dysfunction in children with cerebral palsy: a community survey. , 1996, The Journal of pediatrics.

[67]  R. Mcinnes,et al.  Ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency presenting with strokelike episodes. , 1993, The Journal of pediatrics.

[68]  P. Vreken,et al.  Cerebral palsy and pyruvate dehydrogenase deficiency: identification of two new mutations in the E1α gene , 1999, European Journal of Pediatrics.

[69]  P. Rosenbaum,et al.  The World Health Organization International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: a model to guide clinical thinking, practice and research in the field of cerebral palsy. , 2004, Seminars in pediatric neurology.

[70]  N. Rosman,et al.  Argininemia: A Treatable Genetic Cause of Progressive Spastic Diplegia Simulating Cerebral Palsy: Case Reports and Literature Review , 1997, Journal of child neurology.

[71]  P. Griffiths,et al.  Prevalence and severity of feeding and nutritional problems in children with neurological impairment: Oxford Feeding Study. , 2000 .

[72]  C. Truwit,et al.  Cerebral palsy: MR findings in 40 patients. , 1992, AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology.

[73]  Darcy Fehlings,et al.  Development of the Hypertonia Assessment Tool (HAT): a discriminative tool for hypertonia in children , 2009, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[74]  M. Curzon,et al.  The dental status of cerebral palsied children. , 1991, Pediatric dentistry.

[75]  G T Rab,et al.  Hamstrings in Cerebral Palsy Crouch Gait , 1993, Journal of pediatric orthopedics.

[76]  D. Antonelli,et al.  Electromyography before and after surgery for hip deformity in children with cerebral palsy. A comparison of clinical and electromyographic findings. , 1976, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[77]  D. Damiano,et al.  Lower‐Extremity strength profiles in spastic cerebral palsy , 1998, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[78]  M. Okun,et al.  Antiphospholipid- associated recurrent chorea and ballism in a child with cerebral palsy. , 2000, Pediatric neurology.

[79]  V. Patterson,et al.  The Ashworth Scale: A Reliable and Reproducible Method of Measuring Spasticity , 1989 .

[80]  D E Krebs,et al.  Reliability of observational kinematic gait analysis. , 1985, Physical therapy.

[81]  R. Moncada LOWER EXTREMITY , 1980 .

[82]  H. Peters,et al.  Glutaric aciduria type 1: An underdiagnosed cause of encephalopathy and dystonia–dyskinesia syndrome in children , 1998, Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health.

[83]  M. Morris,et al.  The Functional Mobility Scale: ability to detect change following single event multilevel surgery , 2007, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[84]  A. Hadjipanayis,et al.  Epilepsy in patients with cerebral palsy , 1997, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[85]  E. Mercuri,et al.  Prothrombotic disorders and abnormal neurodevelopmental outcome in infants with neonatal cerebral infarction. , 2001, Pediatrics.

[86]  M H Liang,et al.  The POSNA pediatric musculoskeletal functional health questionnaire: report on reliability, validity, and sensitivity to change. Pediatric Outcomes Instrument Development Group. Pediatric Orthopaedic Society of North America. , 1998, Journal of pediatric orthopedics.

[87]  C A Oatis,et al.  Biomechanics of the foot and ankle under static conditions. , 1988, Physical therapy.

[88]  E. Jellum,et al.  Dystonia and dyskinesia in glutaric aciduria type I: Clinical heterogeneity and therapeutic considerations , 1994, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[89]  H. Gray Gray's Anatomy , 1858 .

[90]  Lower Extremity Muscle Strength in 6- to 8-Year-Old Children Using Hand-Held Dynamometry , 2008, Pediatric physical therapy : the official publication of the Section on Pediatrics of the American Physical Therapy Association.

[91]  P. Duffner,et al.  Prognostic indicators in hemiparetic cerebral palsy , 1981, Annals of neurology.

[92]  Diane L. Damiano,et al.  Intrasession and Intersession Reliability of Handheld Dynamometry in Children with Cerebral Palsy , 2004, Pediatric physical therapy : the official publication of the Section on Pediatrics of the American Physical Therapy Association.

[93]  B. McCrindle,et al.  Presumed pre‐ or perinatal arterial ischemic stroke: Risk factors and outcomes , 2001, Annals of neurology.

[94]  J. Ellenberg,et al.  Epidemiology of cerebral palsy. , 1978, Advances in neurology.

[95]  K. Gibson,et al.  The clinical phenotype of succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency (4-hydroxybutyric aciduria): case reports of 23 new patients. , 1997, Pediatrics.

[96]  P. Decouflé,et al.  Prevalence and characteristics of children with serious hearing impairment in metropolitan Atlanta, 1991-1993. , 1999, Pediatrics.

[97]  M. Ditchfield,et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging findings in cerebral palsy , 2000, Journal of paediatrics and child health.

[98]  R. Love,et al.  Speech performance, dysphagia and oral reflexes in cerebral palsy. , 1980, The Journal of speech and hearing disorders.

[99]  K. Kwong,et al.  Epilepsy in children with cerebral palsy. , 1998, Pediatric neurology.

[100]  D. Zafeiriou,et al.  Characteristics and Prognosis of Epilepsy in Children With Cerebral Palsy , 1999, Journal of child neurology.

[101]  G. Cioni,et al.  MRI and clinical characteristics of children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. , 1999, Neuropediatrics.

[102]  D. Aram,et al.  Limits to a left hemisphere explanation for specific language impairment. , 1994, Journal of speech and hearing research.

[103]  P. Uvebrant,et al.  Speech in children with cerebral palsy , 1994, Acta paediatrica.

[104]  S. Delp,et al.  Hamstrings and psoas lengths during normal and crouch gait: Implications for muscle‐tendon surgery , 1996, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[105]  P. Grant,et al.  Practice parameter: Neuroimaging of the neonate: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society , 2002 .

[106]  D H Nielsen,et al.  Intrarater reliability of manual muscle testing and hand-held dynametric muscle testing. , 1987, Physical therapy.