Understanding internet addiction: a comprehensive review

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to delineate the overall theoretical framework on the topic of internet addiction through the comprehensive narrative review to make readers aware of the conceptual growth and development in the respective field. The paper evolves theoretically from the historical foundation, phenomenology, clinical feature, etiological model to the treatment outcome of internet addiction. Multiple studies have been done in the field of mental health but dearth of work given head to toe theoretical overview for understanding of this trendsetter research area in mental health. Design/methodology/approach Extensive review of literature has been carried out to make a systematic layout for conceptual paper. Findings The internet has been a source of gratification for several behavioral addictions as well as psychiatric disorders. Mainly because of the lack of established diagnostic criteria and a dearth of large sample surveys, the prevalence of problematic internet use (PIU) in general population has not been established. Still, from all the consolidated data, PIU seems to have a male preponderance and manifests itself in late adulthood. Symptoms of PIU can easily be masked with signs of dependence, tolerance and withdrawal which is quite similar to the phenomenology of substance addiction. Psychiatric co-morbidities are more of a norm than the exception in case of PIU. Even though the clinical status of PIU is doubtful, still there is a significant demand for its treatment all over the world. Overall, the excessive use of internet has been strongly debated in literature from PIU to a positive addiction. Only time will tell how it affects our civilization as a phenomenon of evolutionary significance. Originality/value The paper is providing a general conceptual framework for internet addiction/PIU to enable readers to know about the topic in depth from the evolution of the concept to the recent developments in the area.

[1]  Ismail Sahin,et al.  Problematic Internet use: Functions of use, cognitive absorption, and depression , 2014, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[2]  Yonghui Li,et al.  The relationship between recent stressful life events, personality traits, perceived family functioning and internet addiction among college students. , 2014, Stress and health : journal of the International Society for the Investigation of Stress.

[3]  S. Faraone.  ADHD in Adults — A Familiar Disease with Unfamiliar Challenges , 2007, CNS Spectrums.

[4]  Winfried Rief,et al.  Treatment of internet addiction: a meta-analysis. , 2013, Clinical psychology review.

[5]  D. Gentile,et al.  Pathological Video Game Use Among Youths: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study , 2011, Pediatrics.

[6]  C. Ko,et al.  Predictive values of psychiatric symptoms for internet addiction in adolescents: a 2-year prospective study. , 2009, Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine.

[7]  P. Ginige,et al.  Internet Addiction Disorder , 2017 .

[8]  Scott E. Caplan.  Problematic Internet use and psychosocial well-being: development of a theory-based cognitive-behavioral measurement instrument , 2002, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[9]  M. A. Shotton.  The costs and benefits of ‘computer addiction’ , 1991 .

[10]  David N. Greenfield,et al.  Psychological Characteristics of Compulsive Internet Use: A Preliminary Analysis , 1999, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[11]  Jung-Seok Choi,et al.  Differential resting-state EEG patterns associated with comorbid depression in Internet addiction , 2014, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry.

[12]  John P. Charlton,et al.  The Development and Validation of the Computer Apathy and Anxiety Scale , 1995 .

[13]  M. Griffiths,et al.  ‘Internet Addiction’: A Critical Review , 2006, International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction.

[14]  G. Dong,et al.  Impaired inhibitory control in ‘internet addiction disorder’: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study , 2012, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging.

[15]  Changkook Yang,et al.  SCL-90-R and 16PF Profiles of Senior High School Students with Excessive Internet Use , 2005, Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie.

[16]  M. Di Nicola,et al.  A Role for Pharmacotherapy in the Treatment of “Internet Addiction” , 2012, Clinical neuropharmacology.

[17]  Chih-Hung Ko,et al.  Psychiatric symptoms in adolescents with Internet addiction: Comparison with substance use , 2008, Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[18]  Yvonne Feierabend.  Constructing The Self In A Mediated World , 2016 .

[19]  Hamza Ayaydın,et al.  Prevalence and patterns of psychiatric disorders in referred adolescents with Internet addiction , 2013, Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[20]  Konstantinos Siomos,et al.  Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders with Internet addiction in a clinical sample: the effect of personality, defense style and psychopathology. , 2014, Addictive behaviors.

[21]  Dana R. Fisher,et al.  MOBILIZING FRIENDS AND STRANGERS , 2010 .

[22]  K. Young,et al.  Psychology of Computer Use: XL. Addictive Use of the Internet: A Case That Breaks the Stereotype , 1996, Psychological reports.

[23]  Florian Rehbein,et al.  Prevalence and Risk Factors of Video Game Dependency in Adolescence: Results of a German Nationwide Survey , 2010, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[24]  Jongun Kim,et al.  The Effect of a R/T Group Counseling Program on The Internet Addiction Level and Self-Esteem of Internet Addiction University Students , 2008 .

[25]  Konstantinos Siomos,et al.  Internet Addiction as an Important Predictor in Early Detection of Adolescent Drug Use Experience—Implications for Research and Practice , 2012, Journal of addiction medicine.

[26]  Jung-Seok Choi,et al.  The effects of behavioral inhibition/approach system as predictors of Internet addiction in adolescents , 2013 .

[27]  E. Walker,et al.  Elevated social Internet use and schizotypal personality disorder in adolescents , 2007, Schizophrenia Research.

[28]  F. Cao,et al.  Internet addiction among Chinese adolescents: prevalence and psychological features. , 2007, Child: care, health and development.

[29]  Per Carlbring,et al.  Internet and psychological treatment. How well can they be combined? , 2006, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[30]  L. Weng,et al.  Development of a Chinese Internet addiction scale and its psychometric study , 2003 .

[31]  Regina J. J. M. van den Eijnden,et al.  The Compulsive Internet Use Scale (CIUS): Some Psychometric Properties , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[32]  V. Starcevic,et al.  Recognizing Problem Video Game Use , 2010, The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry.

[33]  C. Cooper,et al.  MAVIDOS Maternal Vitamin D Osteoporosis Study: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. The MAVIDOS Study Group , 2012, Trials.

[34]  Larry D. Rosen,et al.  Is Facebook creating "iDisorders"? The link between clinical symptoms of psychiatric disorders and technology use, attitudes and anxiety , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[35]  Silvia Casale,et al.  Adolescent Internet Addiction: Testing the Association Between Self-Esteem, the Perception of Internet Attributes, and Preference for Online Social Interactions , 2012, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[36]  Shilpa Bisen,et al.  An Analytical Study of Smartphone Addiction among Engineering Students: A Gender Differences , 2016, International Journal of Indian Psychology.

[37]  K. Young.  Caught in the Net: How to Recognize the Signs of Internet Addiction--and a Winning Strategy for Recovery , 1998 .

[38]  N. Titov,et al.  Clinician-Assisted Internet-Based Treatment is Effective for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Randomized Controlled Trial , 2009 .

[39]  D. Hinic,et al.  Problems with 'Internet addiction' diagnosis and classification. , 2011, Psychiatria Danubina.

[40]  Yair Amichai-Hamburger,et al.  "On the Internet No One Knows I'm an Introvert": Extroversion, Neuroticism, and Internet Interaction , 2002, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[41]  Stefano Tamburin,et al.  Psychological Considerations in the Assessment and Treatment of Pain in Neurorehabilitation and Psychological Factors Predictive of Therapeutic Response: Evidence and Recommendations from the Italian Consensus Conference on Pain in Neurorehabilitation , 2016, Front. Psychol..

[42]  F. Cao,et al.  The relationship between impulsivity and Internet addiction in a sample of Chinese adolescents , 2007, European Psychiatry.

[43]  Scott E. Caplan,et al.  Beyond Excessive Use: The Interaction between Cognitive and Behavioral Symptoms of Problematic Internet Use , 2006 .

[44]  L. Stapinski,et al.  Seeking safety on the internet: relationship between social anxiety and problematic internet use. , 2012, Journal of anxiety disorders.

[45]  D. Gentile.  Pathological Video-Game Use Among Youth Ages 8 to 18 , 2009, Psychological science.

[46]  K. Namkoong,et al.  The Relationship Between Online Game Addiction and Aggression, Self-Control and Narcissistic Personality Traits , 2008, European Psychiatry.

[47]  John Suler,et al.  The Online Disinhibition Effect , 2004, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[48]  Andrew Campbell,et al.  Internet Use by the Socially Fearful: Addiction or Therapy? , 2006, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[49]  Zheng Huang,et al.  Chinese Internet Addiction Inventory: Developing a Measure of Problematic Internet Use for Chinese College Students , 2007, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[50]  D. Black,et al.  Internet Addiction , 2008, CNS drugs.

[51]  P. Keck,et al.  Psychiatric features of individuals with problematic internet use. , 2000, Journal of affective disorders.

[52]  Jie Gong,et al.  Adolescent addictive internet use and drug abuse in Wuhan, China , 2009 .

[53]  C. Yen,et al.  The association of Internet addiction symptoms with anxiety, depression and self-esteem among adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. , 2014, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[54]  Terry E. Duncan,et al.  International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity Reliability of Pedometer Data in Samples of Youth and Older Women , 2022 .

[55]  C. Yi,et al.  Adolescent internet use and its relationship to cigarette smoking and alcohol use: a prospective cohort study. , 2014, Addictive behaviors.

[56]  Young-Sik Lee,et al.  Combined cognitive behavioral therapy and bupropion for the treatment of problematic on-line game play in adolescents with major depressive disorder , 2012, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[57]  A. Cooper.  Cybersex : the dark side of the force , 2013 .

[58]  P. Peukert,et al.  Internet- und Computerspielabhängigkeit , 2010 .

[59]  K. Scherer.  College Life On-Line: Healthy and Unhealthy Internet Use. , 1997 .

[60]  L. Wartberg,et al.  [Psychopathology and achievement motivation in adolescents with pathological internet use]. , 2011, Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie.

[61]  L. Clark,et al.  Behavioral addictions , 2014 .

[62]  KIMBERLY S. YOUNG,et al.  An Empirical Examination of Client Attitudes Towards Online Counseling , 2005, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[63]  Kimberly Young,et al.  The Relationship Between Depression and Internet Addiction , 1998, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[64]  Jinkyu Han,et al.  Internet overuse and excessive daytime sleepiness in adolescents , 2009, Psychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[65]  King-wa Fu,et al.  Internet addiction: prevalence, discriminant validity and correlates among adolescents in Hong Kong , 2010, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[66]  Tzung Lieh Yeh,et al.  The risk factors of Internet addiction—A survey of university freshmen , 2009, Psychiatry Research.

[67]  Keith W. Beard,et al.  Modification in the Proposed Diagnostic Criteria for Internet Addiction , 2001, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[68]  Al Cooper.  Cybersex : the dark side of the force , 2000 .

[69]  J. Korkeila,et al.  Internet Addiction , 2020 .

[70]  Malcolm R. Parks,et al.  Making Friends in Cyberspace , 1996, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[71]  Karl Mann,et al.  Effects of a manualized short-term treatment of internet and computer game addiction (STICA): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial , 2012, Trials.

[72]  Sujin Lee,et al.  Internet Over-Users' Psychological Profiles: A Behavior Sampling Analysis on Internet Addiction , 2003, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[73]  Konstantinos Siomos,et al.  Internet Addiction among Greek Adolescent Students , 2008, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[74]  J. Morahan-Martin,et al.  Incidence and correlates of pathological Internet use among college students ? ? Portions of this pa , 2000 .

[75]  Gavin Andrews,et al.  Internet Treatment for Depression: A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Clinician vs. Technician Assistance , 2010, PloS one.

[76]  P. Mitchell.  Internet addiction: genuine diagnosis or not? , 2000, The Lancet.

[77]  C. Ko,et al.  Psychiatric Comorbidity of Internet Addiction in College Students: An Interview Study , 2008, CNS Spectrums.

[78]  P. Kalivas,et al.  Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu2/3) in drug addiction. , 2010, European journal of pharmacology.

[79]  John P. Charlton,et al.  Distinguishing addiction and high engagement in the context of online game playing , 2007, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[80]  Ya-song Du,et al.  Longer Term Effect of Randomized, Controlled Group Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Internet Addiction in Adolescent Students in Shanghai , 2010, The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry.

[81]  Manish Gupta,et al.  Impact of Student Engagement on Affective Learning: Evidence from a Large Indian University , 2018 .

[82]  Ni Yan,et al.  Multi-family group therapy for adolescent Internet addiction: exploring the underlying mechanisms. , 2015, Addictive behaviors.

[83]  Yan Zhou,et al.  Gray matter abnormalities in Internet addiction: a voxel-based morphometry study. , 2011, European journal of radiology.

[84]  Jee Hyun Ha,et al.  Psychiatric comorbidity assessed in Korean children and adolescents who screen positive for Internet addiction. , 2006, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[85]  R. Tao,et al.  Proposed diagnostic criteria for internet addiction. , 2010, Addiction.

[86]  M. Potenza,et al.  Problematic Internet Use: Clinical Implications , 2007, CNS Spectrums.

[87]  S. Peele,et al.  The meaning of addiction: Compulsive experience and its interpretation , 1985 .

[88]  Naomi Thomas,et al.  Video-arcade game, computer game and Internet activities of Australian students: Participation habits and prevalence of addiction , 2010 .

[89]  R. A. Davis,et al.  A cognitive-behavioral model of pathological Internet use , 2001, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[90]  G. Floros,et al.  P01-203 - Presentation of a Specialized Outpatient Unit for Internet and PC Addiction -first Year of Operations, Results, Recommendations for the Future , 2010, European Psychiatry.

[91]  Chih-Hung Ko,et al.  The Association between Adult ADHD Symptoms and Internet Addiction among College Students: The Gender Difference , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[92]  B. Chun,et al.  [Association of Internet addiction with health promotion lifestyle profile and perceived health status in adolescents]. , 2005, Journal of preventive medicine and public health = Yebang Uihakhoe chi.

[93]  Ying-yi Hong,et al.  A meaning system approach to Chinese students' achievement goals. , 2000 .

[94]  Janet Morahan-Martin,et al.  The Gender Gap in Internet Use: Why Men Use the Internet More Than Women - A Literature Review , 1998, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[95]  Dan J Stein,et al.  Problematic internet use: Proposed classification and diagnostic criteria , 2003, Depression and anxiety.

[96]  The Relationship between Internet Addiction and Anxiety among students of University of Sargodha , 2014 .

[97]  Inger Johanne Bakken,et al.  Internet addiction among Norwegian adults: a stratified probability sample study. , 2009, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[98]  L. Wartberg,et al.  Psychische Befindlichkeit und Leistungsmotivation bei Jugendlichen mit pathologischem Internetgebrauch , 2011 .

[99]  Per Carlbring,et al.  Treatment of panic disorder via the internet: A randomized trial of a self-help program * , 2001 .

[100]  S. Casale,et al.  Psychosocial correlates of internet use among Italian students. , 2011, International journal of psychology : Journal international de psychologie.

[101]  Zheng Yon.  Comprehensive Intervention on Internet Addiction of Middle School Students , 2005 .

[102]  K. Ball,et al.  Snacking behaviours of adolescents and their association with skipping meals , 2007, The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity.

[103]  Elias Aboujaoude,et al.  Potential Markers for Problematic Internet Use: A Telephone Survey of 2,513 Adults , 2006, CNS Spectrums.

[104]  D. Black,et al.  Clinical features, psychiatric comorbidity, and health-related quality of life in persons reporting compulsive computer use behavior. , 1999, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[105]  G. Castelnuovo,et al.  Challenges in Internet Addiction Disorder: Is a Diagnosis Feasible or Not? , 2016, Front. Psychol..

[106]  P. Emmelkamp,et al.  Interapy: a controlled randomized trial of the standardized treatment of posttraumatic stress through the internet. , 2003, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[107]  Sheila McNamee,et al.  Therapy And Identity Construction In A Postmodern World , 1996 .

[108]  Chulmo Koo,et al.  Internet-Addicted Kids and South Korean Government Efforts: Boot-Camp Case , 2011, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[109]  G. Andersson,et al.  Internet-based self-help with therapist feedback and in vivo group exposure for social phobia: a randomized controlled trial. , 2006, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[110]  Michael J Fine,et al.  Association between media use in adolescence and depression in young adulthood: a longitudinal study. , 2009, Archives of general psychiatry.

[111]  Louis Leung,et al.  Effects of Individual Differences, Awareness-Knowledge, and Acceptance of Internet Addiction as a Health Risk on Willingness to Change Internet Habits , 2012 .

[112]  Mark D. Griffiths,et al.  IN STUDENTS : PREVALENCE AND RISK FACTORS 1 Internet addiction in students : Prevalence and risk factors , 2014 .

[113]  LEE M. Cheung,et al.  The effects of insomnia and internet addiction on depression in Hong Kong Chinese adolescents: an exploratory cross‐sectional analysis , 2011, Journal of sleep research.

[114]  Kimberly Young,et al.  Cognitive Behavior Therapy with Internet Addicts: Treatment Outcomes and Implications , 2007, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[115]  Domenico De Berardis,et al.  Alexithymia and Its Relationships with Dissociative Experiences and Internet Addiction in a Nonclinical Sample , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[116]  M. Beutel,et al.  Treatment Outcomes in Patients with Internet Addiction: A Clinical Pilot Study on the Effects of a Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Program , 2014, BioMed research international.

[117]  Ronald J. Faber,et al.  Depression, materialism, and excessive Internet use in relation to compulsive buying. , 2011, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[118]  Jin Young Park,et al.  The effects of Internet addiction on the lifestyle and dietary behavior of Korean adolescents , 2010, Nutrition research and practice.

[119]  S. Bisen,et al.  The Impact of the Internet in Twenty-First Century Addictions , 2019, Internet and Technology Addiction.

[120]  Mark D. Griffiths,et al.  Excessive Computer Game Playing: Evidence for Addiction and Aggression? , 2007, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[121]  Kimberly Young,et al.  Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New Clinical Disorder , 1998, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[122]  M. Kaess,et al.  Prevalence of pathological internet use among adolescents in Europe: demographic and social factors. , 2012, Addiction.

[123]  G. Andersson.  Using the Internet to provide cognitive behaviour therapy. , 2009, Behaviour research and therapy.

[124]  Christos C. Frangos,et al.  A Meta-analysis of the Reliabilty of Young's Internet Addiction Test , 2012 .

[125]  S. Pallanti,et al.  Internet addiction: a descriptive clinical study focusing on comorbidities and dissociative symptoms. , 2009, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[126]  Kyunghee Kim,et al.  Internet addiction in Korean adolescents and its relation to depression and suicidal ideation: a questionnaire survey. , 2006, International journal of nursing studies.

[127]  J. Koske,et al.  Assessment of beach hotels adaptation capacity to climate variability: the case of Mombasa County, Kenya. , 2014 .

[128]  Jerald J. Block,et al.  Prevalence Underestimated in Problematic Internet Use Study , 2007, CNS Spectrums.

[129]  C. Ko,et al.  The association between Internet addiction and psychiatric disorder: A review of the literature , 2012, European Psychiatry.

[130]  Yang Fang.  The Effect of Integrated Psychosocial Intervention on 52 Adolescents with Internet Addiction Disorder , 2005 .

[131]  Marc N. Potenza,et al.  Problematic Internet Use , 2010 .

[132]  R. Tao,et al.  The effect of a family-based intervention model on Internet-addicted Chinese adolescents , 2011 .

[133]  C. Ko,et al.  Screening for Internet Addiction: An Empirical Study on Cut‐off Points for the Chen Internet Addiction Scale , 2005, The Kaohsiung journal of medical sciences.

[134]  Chien Chou,et al.  A Review of the Research on Internet Addiction , 2005 .

[135]  Scott E. Caplan,et al.  Online Social Interaction, Psychosocial Well‐Being, and Problematic Internet Use , 2012 .

[136]  Phyllis Schumacher,et al.  Loneliness and social uses of the Internet , 2003, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[137]  Malcolm R. Parks.  Making Friends in Cyberspace , 1996, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[138]  Kimberly S. Young,et al.  CBT-IA: The First Treatment Model for Internet Addiction , 2011, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[139]  C. Ko,et al.  Proposed Diagnostic Criteria of Internet Addiction for Adolescents , 2005, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.