Prejudice in Schools: Promotion of an Inclusive Culture and Climate

Public schools represent the pluralism of American society. Unfortunately, many children experience their public school environment as unwelcoming or even violent. Prejudicial attitudes contribute to problematic intergroup relations in public school settings. Furthermore, teachers are often unprepared to work with the diversity of class, linguistic groups, sexual orientation, and other sociocultural backgrounds that make up the student body in their classrooms. This article discusses theories of prejudice and how they inform an understanding of bullying, conflict, and violence in schools. Evidence-based prejudice reduction approaches are presented that teachers and school administrators can use to improve school culture and climate.

[1]  J Tudor-Hart,et al.  On the nature of prejudice. , 1961, The Eugenics review.

[2]  P. Leach Teaching tolerance , 1964 .

[3]  J. L. Harrison,et al.  The Government Printing Office , 1968, American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education.

[4]  D. Commerce Statistical abstract of the United States , 1978 .

[5]  N. Newcombe,et al.  Racial attitude development among young Black children as a function of parental attitudes: A longitudinal and cross-sectional study. , 1986 .

[6]  Audrey J. Murrell,et al.  Reducing intergroup bias: The benefits of recategorization. , 1989 .

[7]  Wayne K. Hoy,et al.  Organizational Climate and Culture: A Conceptual Analysis of the School Workplace , 1990 .

[8]  Janet Ward Schofield,et al.  School Desegregation and Intergroup Relations: A Review of the Literature , 1991 .

[9]  S. Salend,et al.  Negotiating Change for Multicultural Education: A Consultation Model , 1991 .

[10]  T. Gilovich,et al.  How We Know What Isn't So: The Fallibility of Human Reason in Everyday Life , 1991 .

[11]  Janet Ward Schofield,et al.  Chapter 8: School Desegregation and Intergroup Relations: A Review of the Literature , 1991 .

[12]  M. Yee,et al.  Self-evaluations and intergroup attitudes in children aged three to nine. , 1992, Child development.

[13]  L. S. Liben,et al.  Cognitive mechanisms in children's gender stereotyping: theoretical and educational implications of a cognitive-based intervention. , 1992, Child development.

[14]  Josette McGregor,et al.  Effectiveness of Role Playing and Antiracist Teaching in Reducing Student Prejudice. , 1993 .

[15]  Patricia L. Marshall Multicultural Teaching Concerns: New Dimensions in the Area of Teacher Concerns Research? , 1996 .

[16]  L. Bobo,et al.  Perceptions of racial group competition: Extending Blumer's theory of group position to a multiracial social context , 1996 .

[17]  F. Aboud,et al.  Parental and peer influences on children's racial attitudes☆ , 1996 .

[18]  M. Adams,et al.  Teaching for diversity and social justice : a sourcebook , 1997 .

[19]  J. Phinney,et al.  Intergroup Attitudes among Ethnic Minority Adolescents: A Causal Model. , 1997, Child development.

[20]  P. Chodoff,et al.  The Anatomy of Prejudices , 1997 .

[21]  E. Aronson,et al.  The Jigsaw Classroom: Building Cooperation in the Classroom , 1997 .

[22]  L. Schorr Common Purpose: Strengthening Families and Neighborhoods to Rebuild America , 1997 .

[23]  B. Altemeyer,et al.  The Other “Authoritarian Personality” , 1998 .

[24]  T. Pettigrew Intergroup contact theory. , 1998, Annual review of psychology.

[25]  I. Hyman,et al.  The Other Side of School Violence: Educator Policies and Practices That May Contribute to Student Misbehavior , 1998 .

[26]  Robert E. Slavin,et al.  Improving Intergroup Relations: Lessons Learned From Cooperative Learning Programs , 1999 .

[27]  Sheri R. Levy Reducing Prejudice: Lessons From Social‐Cognitive Factors Underlying Perceiver Differences in Prejudice , 1999 .

[28]  Rebecca S. Bigler,et al.  The Use of Multicultural Curricula and Materials to Counter Racism in Children , 1999 .

[29]  Jeffrey F. Milem,et al.  Enacting Diverse Learning Environments: Improving the Climate for Racial/Ethnic Diversity in Higher Education. ERIC Digest. , 1999 .

[30]  A. Ramanathan,et al.  The relationship between school culture and inclusion: How an inclusive culture supports inclusive education , 1999 .

[31]  D. Wren,et al.  School culture: exploring the hidden curriculum. , 1999, Adolescence.

[32]  Vladimir T. Khmelkov,et al.  Organizational effects on race relations in schools. , 1999 .

[33]  F. Pratto,et al.  Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression , 1999 .

[34]  F. Aboud,et al.  Exploring and Evaluating School‐Based Interventions to Reduce Prejudice , 1999 .

[35]  Cora Le-Doux,et al.  Multicultural Content in Social Work Graduate Programs: A National Survey. , 1999 .

[36]  R. Heck Examining the Impact of School Quality on School Outcomes and Improvement: A Value-Added Approach , 2000 .

[37]  K. Cokley,et al.  An Investigation of Academic Self-Concept and its Relationship to Academic Achievement in African American College Students , 2000 .

[38]  Celia B. Fisher,et al.  Discrimination Distress During Adolescence , 2000 .

[39]  W. Stephan,et al.  Reducing prejudice and stereotyping in schools. , 2000 .

[40]  Mitchell L. Holifield,et al.  Elementary Magnet School Students' Interracial Interaction Choices , 2000 .

[41]  S. Kelder,et al.  Promoting tolerance and moral engagement through peer modeling. , 2000, Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology.

[42]  W. Pearce,et al.  The public dialogue consortium's school-wide dialogue process: a communicative approach to develop citizenship skills and enhance school climate , 2001 .

[43]  R. Fazio,et al.  On the Origins of Racial Attitudes: Correlates of Childhood Experiences , 2001 .

[44]  Christine Bennett Genres of Research in Multicultural Education , 2001 .

[45]  Laurie A. Rudman,et al.  "Unlearning" automatic biases: the malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[46]  Kelly S. Ervin Multiculturalism, Diversity, and African American College Students , 2001 .

[47]  David E. Wilder,et al.  Social Identity, Intergroup Conflict, and Conflict Reduction , 2001 .

[48]  Judith Stacey,et al.  (How) Does the Sexual Orientation of Parents Matter? , 2001, American Sociological Review.

[49]  S. Russell,et al.  School outcomes of sexual minority youth in the United States: evidence from a national study. , 2001, Journal of adolescence.

[50]  R. Selman,et al.  The Value of a Developmental Approach to Evaluating Character Development Programmes: An outcome study of Facing History and Ourselves , 2001 .

[51]  P Fonagy,et al.  Creating a peaceful school learning environment: a controlled study of an elementary school intervention to reduce violence. , 2001, The American journal of psychiatry.

[52]  Lawrence R. James,et al.  The cross‐level effects of culture and climate in human service teams , 2002 .

[53]  Joseph B. Clough,et al.  Evaluation of the Peacemakers Program: School-based Violence Prevention for Students in Grades Four through Eight. , 2002 .

[54]  M. Rettig Cultural Diversity and Play from an Ecological Perspective , 2002 .

[55]  Louise B. Jennings,et al.  Examining the Role of Critical Inquiry for Transformative Practices: Two Joint Case Studies of Multicultural Teacher Education. , 2002 .

[56]  S. Graham,et al.  Ethnicity, Peer Harassment, and Adjustment in Middle School: , 2002 .

[57]  Norman Miller,et al.  Personalization and the Promise of Contact Theory , 2002 .

[58]  Louise B. Jennings,et al.  Examining the Role of Critical Inquiry for Transformative Practices: Two Joint Case Studies of Multicultural Teacher Education , 2002, Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education.

[59]  Charmaine Llagas,et al.  Status and Trends in the Education of Hispanics. , 2003 .

[60]  Steven Z. Athanases,et al.  Toward a consistent stance in teaching for equity: learning to advocate for Lesbian- and Gay-identified youth , 2003 .

[61]  R. Storaasli,et al.  Diversity training in graduate school: An exploratory evaluation of the Safe Zone project. , 2003 .

[62]  R. Fazio,et al.  Relations between implicit measures of prejudice: What are we measuring?: (633872013-734) , 2003 .

[63]  P. Gurin,et al.  The Benefits of Diversity in Education for Democratic Citizenship , 2004 .

[64]  W. Vogt,et al.  Education programs for improving intergroup relations : theory, research, and practice , 2004 .

[65]  Diversity and U.S. 14-yearolds’ knowledge, attitudes, and experiences , 2004 .

[66]  D. W. Sue Whiteness and ethnocentric monoculturalism: making the "invisible" visible. , 2004, The American psychologist.

[67]  N. Cantor,et al.  50 Years After Brown v. Board of Education: The Promise and Challenge of Multicultural Education , 2004 .

[68]  C. Banks Improving Multicultural Education: Lessons from the Intergroup Education Movement , 2004 .

[69]  Multicultural education: Israeli and German adolescents' knowledge and views regarding the Holocaust. , 2004, Adolescence.

[70]  L. Huddy Contrasting Theoretical Approaches to Intergroup Relations , 2004 .

[71]  B. Tatum Family Life and School Experience: Factors in the Racial Identity Development of Black Youth in White Communities , 2004 .

[72]  L. Gooding A world of difference. , 2004, Nursing standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain) : 1987).

[73]  J. Dovidio,et al.  Developing a More Inclusive Social Identity: An Elementary School Intervention , 2004 .

[74]  Constructing Nonviolent Cultures in Schools: The State of the Science , 2004 .

[75]  D. Perkins,et al.  Efficacy of Multicultural Education for Preschool Children , 2005 .

[76]  C. McKown Applying Ecological Theory to Advance the Science and Practice of School-Based Prejudice Reduction Interventions , 2005 .

[77]  P. Fonagy,et al.  A developmental approach to mentalizing communities: II. The Peaceful Schools experiment. , 2005, Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic.

[78]  C. Glisson,et al.  The Effects of Organizational Culture and Climate on the Access to Mental Health Care in Child Welfare and Juvenile Justice Systems , 2006, Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research.

[79]  Meekyung Han,et al.  Perceived school environments, perceived discrimination, and school performance among children of Mexican immigrants. , 2005 .

[80]  Steven Z. Athanases,et al.  Focusing New Teachers on Diversity and Equity: Toward a Knowledge Base for Mentors. , 2005 .

[81]  R. Bigler,et al.  Children's perceptions of discrimination: a developmental model. , 2005, Child development.

[82]  Sonja K Schoenwald,et al.  The ARC Organizational and Community Intervention Strategy for Implementing Evidence-Based Children's Mental Health Treatments , 2005, Mental health services research.

[83]  Kathryn S. Whitted,et al.  Best Practices for Preventing or Reducing Bullying in Schools , 2005 .

[84]  Sylvia Hurtado The Next Generation of Diversity and Intergroup Relations Research. , 2005 .

[85]  Elizabeth Levy Paluck,et al.  Diversity Training and Intergroup Contact: A Call to Action Research , 2006 .

[86]  Sue Abell,et al.  Bullying , 2006 .

[87]  M. Resnick,et al.  Suicidality among gay, lesbian and bisexual youth: the role of protective factors. , 2006, The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine.

[88]  Carolyn Talbert-Johnson Preparing Highly Qualified Teacher Candidates for Urban Schools , 2006 .

[89]  T. Pettigrew The Advantages of Multilevel Approaches , 2006 .

[90]  Linda R. Tropp,et al.  A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. , 2006, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[91]  Federico Echenique,et al.  A Measure of Segregation Based on Social Interactions , 2007 .

[92]  D. Espelage,et al.  Predicting Psychosocial Consequences of Homophobic Victimization in Middle School Students , 2007 .

[93]  Sheri R. Levy,et al.  Consequences of learning about historical racism among European American and African American children. , 2007, Child development.

[94]  D. Bargal,et al.  Summary and Implications for the Next Stage , 2008 .

[95]  M. S. Spencer,et al.  Outcome Evaluation of the Intergroup Project , 2008 .

[96]  H. Weaver,et al.  Anti-Defamation League , 2011 .

[97]  Teaching About Religion in Public Schools: Where Do We Go From Here? , 2011 .