Toward a behavioral theory of leadership

Abstract A great deal of the apparent inconsistency in the leadership literature may be due to semantic confusion about leader behavior and to the absence of a conceptual framework which includes intermediate and situational variables. A system of three distinct leader behavior dimensions is proposed to reduce this confusion. Two of the dimensions are similar to the familiar variables, Consideration and Initiating Structure. The third dimension, Decision-Centralization, refers to the extent to which a leader allows his subordinates to participate in decision-making. A discrepancy model is developed to explain the relation between leader behavior and subordinate satisfaction with the leader. A multiple linkage model is developed to explain how the leader behavior variables interact with situational variables to determine group productivity. A review of the leadership literature revealed that the results of previous research are generally consistent with the proposed models. The compatibility of the linkage model with Fiedler's Contingency Model is discussed, and suggestions for future research are offered.

[1]  Elizabeth W. Skinner.  RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR PATTERNS AND ORGANIZATIONAL‐SITUATIONAL VARIABLES , 1969 .

[2]  E Kay,et al.  Effects of threat in a performance appraisal interview. , 1965, The Journal of applied psychology.

[3]  R. L. Hamblin,et al.  Some Effects of Close and Punitive Styles of Supervision , 1964, American Journal of Sociology.

[4]  Harold G. McCurdy,et al.  The efficiency of small human groups in the solution of problems requiring genuine co-operation. , 1952, Journal of Personality.

[5]  Michael J. Kavanagh,et al.  Consideration and Initiating Structure: An Experimental Investigation of Leadership Traits , 1969 .

[6]  G. Strauss.  Some notes on power equalization , 1964 .

[7]  V. Vroom.  Work and motivation , 1964 .

[8]  R. Schaffer.  Job satisfaction as related to need satisfaction in work. , 1953 .

[9]  J. R. French,et al.  The bases of social power. , 1959 .

[10]  H. Eber,et al.  Democratic versus authoritarian: a further investigation of group problem-solving. , 1953, Journal of personality.

[11]  G. Yukl.  A Situation Description Questionnaire for Leaders , 1969 .

[12]  D. Trow,et al.  Autonomy and job satisfaction in task-oriented groups. , 1957, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[13]  Ralph M. Stogdill,et al.  THE LEADER BEHAVIOR OF CORPORATION PRESIDENTS , 1963 .

[14]  U. Foa.  Relation of Workers Expectation to Satisfaction with Supervisor , 1957 .

[15]  J. French,et al.  Overcoming Resistance to Change , 1948 .

[16]  Leo Meitzer,et al.  Scientific Productivity in Organizational Settings , 1956 .

[17]  Victor H. Vroom.  Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation , 2019 .

[18]  Aaron Lowin,et al.  Participative decision making: A model, literature critique, and prescriptions for research , 1968 .

[19]  E. Fleishman.  Attitude Versus Skill Factors In Work Group Productivity1 , 1965 .

[20]  M. Argyle,et al.  The Measurement of Supervisory Methods , 1957 .

[21]  Chris Argyris,et al.  Satisfactions in the White Collar Job. , 1954 .

[22]  G. Yukl,et al.  Participation, managerial decision-making, and situational variables. , 1969 .

[23]  J. Bachman,et al.  Control, performance, and satisfaction: an analysis of structural and individual effects. , 1966, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[24]  F. Greer.  Leader indulgence and group performance. , 1961 .

[25]  H. Rosen,et al.  A suggested modification in job satisfaction surveys , 1955 .

[26]  Herbert H. Meyer,et al.  Participation and the Appraisal System , 1966 .

[27]  J. French,et al.  An Experiment on Participation in a Norwegian Factory , 1960 .

[28]  Lyman W. Porter,et al.  Job attitudes in management: I. Perceived deficiencies in need fulfillment as a function of job level. , 1962 .

[29]  G. Yukl.  Leader LPC scores: attitude dimensions and behavioral correlate. , 1970, The Journal of social psychology.

[30]  Ralph M. Stogdill,et al.  New Leader Behavior Description Subscales , 1962 .

[31]  C. H. Lawshe,et al.  Foreman Leadership as Perceived By Superiors and Subordinates1 , 1959 .

[32]  Edwin A. Fleishman,et al.  PATTERNS OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR RELATED TO EMPLOYEE GRIEVANCES AND TURNOVER , 1962 .

[33]  L. Gruenfeld,et al.  The behavior of task-oriented (low LPC) and socially oriented (high LPC) leaders under several conditions f social support. , 1969, The Journal of social psychology.

[34]  M. Patchen,et al.  Supervisory Methods and Group Performance Norms , 1962 .

[35]  I. Ross,et al.  Need satisfactions and employee turnover. , 1957 .

[36]  A. Korman.  Consideration, "initiating structure," and organizational criteria: A review. , 1966 .

[37]  W. Mcgehee.  Satisfaction in the White-Collar Job. , 1954 .

[38]  C. H. Lawshe,et al.  Psychology in industry , 1952 .

[39]  Mauk Mulder,et al.  Threat, Attraction to Group, and Need for Strong Leadership , 1963 .

[40]  Howard Baumgartel,et al.  Leadership, Motivations, and Attitudes in Research Laboratories , 1956 .

[41]  Norman R. F. Maier,et al.  GROUP DECISION IN ENGLAND AND THE UNITED STATES , 1962 .

[42]  W. W. Rambo.  The construction and analysis of a leadership behavior rating form. , 1958 .

[43]  M. E. Shaw,et al.  A comparison of two types of leadership in various communication nets. , 1955, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[44]  Henry L. Tosi.  A REEXAMINATION OF PERSONALITY AS A DETERMINANT OF THE EFFECTS OF PARTICIPATION , 1970 .

[45]  J. Misumi,et al.  An Experimental Study of the E ffects of Supervisory Behavior on Productivity and Morale in a Hierarchical Organization , 1966 .

[46]  W. E. Scott,et al.  PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP IN A FORMAL ORGANIZATION , 1968 .

[47]  W. Gomberg.  The trouble with democratic management , 1966 .

[48]  E. A. Fleishman,et al.  RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP PATTERNS AND EFFECTIVENESS RATINGS AMONG ISRAELI FOREMEN , 1970 .

[49]  S. M. Sales,et al.  Supervisory Style and Productivity: Review and Theory1 , 1966 .

[50]  Donald C. Pelz,et al.  Influence: a key to effective leadership in the first-line supervisor. , 1952 .

[51]  A. Reilly.  The effects of different leadership styles on group performance: a field experiment , 1968 .

[52]  R. Stogdill,et al.  THE LEADER BEHAVIOR OF PRESIDENTS OF LABOR UNIONS , 1964 .

[53]  M. Argyle,et al.  Supervisory Methods Related to Productivity, Absenteeism, and Labour Turnover , 1958 .

[54]  Joan C. Woodward.  Industrial Organization: Theory and Practice , 1966 .

[55]  N. C. Morse,et al.  The experimental change of a major organizational variable. , 1956, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[56]  A. Solem.  An evaluation of two attitudinal approaches to delegation. , 1958 .

[57]  L. Festinger,et al.  Emotional disruption and industrial productivity. , 1961 .

[58]  P. C. Smith,et al.  Group decision and employee participation. , 1955 .

[59]  M. Blood,et al.  Leadership performance of nursing supervisors at two organizational levels. , 1968, The Journal of applied psychology.

[60]  Norman R. F. Maier,et al.  An experimental test of the effects of "developmental" vs. "free" discussions on the quality of group decisions. , 1957 .

[61]  L. R. Anderson.  Leader Behavior, Member Attitudes, and Task Performance of Intercultural Discussion Groups , 1966 .

[62]  M. Beer.  Leadership, employee needs and motivation / , 1968 .

[63]  T. R. Wilson,et al.  LEADER BEHAVIOR, GROUP PRODUCTIVITY, AND RATING OF LEAST PREFERRED CO-WORKER. , 1965, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[64]  S. Seashore.  Group cohesiveness in the industrial work group , 1955 .

[65]  R. Likert,et al.  New Patterns of Management. , 1963 .

[66]  R. Campbell,et al.  A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. , 1968 .

[67]  L. Berkowitz.  Group Standards, Cohesiveness, and Productivity , 1954 .