Climate Change: Biological and Human Aspects

1. An introduction to climate change 2. Principal indicators of past climates 3. Past climate change 4. The Oligocene to the Quaternary: climate and biology 5. Present climate and biological change 6. Current warming and likely future impacts 7. The human ecology of climate change 8. Sustainability and policy Appendix 1. Glossary and abbreviations Appendix 2. Bio-geological chronology Appendix 3. Calculations of energy demand/supply and orders of magnitude Appendix 4. Further thoughts for consideration Index.

[1]  Paul Mellars,et al.  A new radiocarbon revolution and the dispersal of modern humans in Eurasia , 2006, Nature.

[2]  J. Pierce,et al.  Fire-induced erosion and millennial-scale climate change in northern ponderosa pine forests , 2004, Nature.

[3]  Rita R. Colwell,et al.  Climate change and human health. , 2005, The New England journal of medicine.

[4]  David Pollard,et al.  Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO2 , 2003, Nature.

[5]  Yang Wang,et al.  Expansion of C4 ecosystems as an indicator of global ecological change in the late Miocene , 1993, Nature.

[6]  A. Barnosky,et al.  Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents , 2004, Science.

[7]  H. Stoll Climate Change: The Arctic tells its story , 2006, Nature.

[8]  Raphael Kudela,et al.  A massive phytoplankton bloom induced by an ecosystem-scale iron fertilization experiment in the equatorial Pacific Ocean , 1996, Nature.

[9]  G. Heal,et al.  Economics Returns from the Biosphere , 1998 .

[10]  J. Southon,et al.  Millennial-scale storminess variability in the northeastern United States during the Holocene epoch , 2002, Nature.

[11]  D. Piperno,et al.  Early maize agriculture and interzonal interaction in southern Peru , 2006, Nature.

[12]  R. Houghton Terrestrial carbon sinks--uncertain explanations. , 2002, Biologist.

[13]  A. Y. Gladenkov,et al.  Evidence for an early opening of the Bering Strait , 1999, Nature.

[14]  Milutin Milanković Théorie mathématique des phénomènes thermiques produits par la radiation solaire , 1920 .

[15]  A. Weaver,et al.  Absence of deep-water formation in the Labrador Sea during the last interglacial period , 2001, Nature.

[16]  R. Monson,et al.  Winter forest soil respiration controlled by climate and microbial community composition , 2006, Nature.

[17]  Eduardo Zorita,et al.  Reconstructing Past Climate from Noisy Data , 2004, Science.

[18]  Andrew M. Carleton,et al.  Climatology: Contrails reduce daily temperature range , 2002, Nature.

[19]  D. Schrag Effects of diagenesis on the isotopic record of late paleogene tropical sea surface temperatures , 1999 .

[20]  Uwe Grünewald,et al.  Flood Risk in Central Europe , 2003, Science.

[21]  D. Rogers,et al.  The Global Spread of Malaria in a Future , Warmer World , 2022 .

[22]  M. Roderick,et al.  The cause of decreased pan evaporation over the past 50 years. , 2002, Science.

[23]  J. Porter Rising temperatures are likely to reduce crop yields , 2005, Nature.

[24]  Y. Abe,et al.  Enhanced atmospheric loss on protoplanets at the giant impact phase in the presence of oceans , 2005, Nature.

[25]  R. Macarthur,et al.  The Theory of Island Biogeography , 1969 .

[26]  W. Creamer,et al.  Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru , 2004, Nature.

[27]  P. Stott,et al.  Human contribution to the European heatwave of 2003 , 2004, Nature.

[28]  H. Mooney,et al.  Human Domination of Earth’s Ecosystems , 1997, Renewable Energy.

[29]  D. Etheridge,et al.  Unexpected Changes to the Global Methane Budget over the Past 2000 Years , 2005, Science.

[30]  Nicolas Gruber,et al.  The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2 , 2004, Science.

[31]  M. Mudelsee,et al.  No upward trends in the occurrence of extreme floods in central Europe , 2003, Nature.

[32]  D. Froese,et al.  Palaeobotany: Ice-age steppe vegetation in east Beringia , 2003, Nature.

[33]  G. Meehl,et al.  More Intense, More Frequent, and Longer Lasting Heat Waves in the 21st Century , 2004, Science.

[34]  A A Velichko,et al.  Siberian Peatlands a Net Carbon Sink and Global Methane Source Since the Early Holocene , 2004, Science.

[35]  H. Elderfield,et al.  Deep-Sea Temperature and Circulation Changes at the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum , 2005, Science.

[36]  W. J. Burroughs Does the Weather Really Matter , 1997 .

[37]  R. D. Guthrie New carbon dates link climatic change with human colonization and Pleistocene extinctions , 2006, Nature.

[38]  N. Keilman Biodiversity: The threat of small households , 2003, Nature.

[39]  G. W. Lamorey,et al.  The ‘flickering switch’ of late Pleistocene climate change , 1993, Nature.

[40]  J. Ehleringer,et al.  Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary , 1997, Nature.

[41]  O. Hoegh‐Guldberg,et al.  Ecological responses to recent climate change , 2002, Nature.

[42]  David G. Vaughan,et al.  How Does the Antarctic Ice Sheet Affect Sea Level Rise? , 2005, Science.

[43]  J. Cowie Climate and human change : disaster or opportunity? , 1998 .

[44]  J. A. Wolfe PALEOCLIMATIC ESTIMATES FROM TERTIARY LEAF ASSEMBLAGES , 1995 .

[45]  Michael J. Rogers,et al.  Long-term sensitivity of soil carbon turnover to warming , 2005, Nature.

[46]  Behl,et al.  Carbon isotopic evidence for methane hydrate instability during quaternary interstadials , 2000, Science.

[47]  David S. G. Thomas,et al.  Remobilization of southern African desert dune systems by twenty-first century global warming , 2005, Nature.

[48]  Joel E. Cohen,et al.  How Many People Can the Earth Support , 1996 .

[49]  W. M. Gray,et al.  The Recent Increase in Atlantic Hurricane Activity: Causes and Implications , 2001, Science.

[50]  Carlo Barbante,et al.  Eight glacial cycles from an Antarctic ice core , 2004, Nature.

[51]  Robin Clarke,et al.  Stockholm plus ten: Promises, promises? : the decade since the 1972 UN Environment Conference , 1982 .

[52]  Per Ove Eikeland US energy policy at a crossroads , 1993 .

[53]  M. Böhme Migration history of air-breathing fishes reveals Neogene atmospheric circulation patterns , 2004 .

[54]  M. Ohman,et al.  Planktonic Foraminifera of the California Current Reflect 20th-Century Warming , 2006, Science.

[55]  G. Denton,et al.  Interhemispheric climate links revealed by a late-glacial cooling episode in southern Chile , 2001, Nature.

[56]  J. Syktus,et al.  Climate Modes of the Phanerozoic: Contents , 1992 .

[57]  P. Kanagaratnam,et al.  Accelerated Sea-Level Rise from West Antarctica , 2004, Science.

[58]  A. Knoll,et al.  Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction , 2004, Science.

[59]  Lee Schipper,et al.  More efficient household electricity-use: An international perspective , 1991 .

[60]  A. Malthe-Sørenssen,et al.  Release of methane from a volcanic basin as a mechanism for initial Eocene global warming , 2004, Nature.

[61]  R. D. Guthrie Radiocarbon evidence of mid-Holocene mammoths stranded on an Alaskan Bering Sea island , 2004, Nature.

[62]  Henri Weimerskirch,et al.  Emperor penguins and climate change , 2001, Nature.

[63]  S. Østerhus,et al.  Decreasing overflow from the Nordic seas into the Atlantic Ocean through the Faroe Bank channel since 1950 , 2001, Nature.

[64]  W. Broecker,et al.  Origin of the northern Atlantic's Heinrich events , 1992 .

[65]  T. Sowers Late Quaternary Atmospheric CH4 Isotope Record Suggests Marine Clathrates Are Stable , 2006, Science.

[66]  Robert Costanza,et al.  Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature , 2002, Science.

[67]  C. Tucker,et al.  Climate-Driven Increases in Global Terrestrial Net Primary Production from 1982 to 1999 , 2003, Science.

[68]  John Tyme Motorways versus Democracy , 1978 .

[69]  D. Hodell,et al.  Possible role of climate in the collapse of Classic Maya civilization , 1995, Nature.

[70]  Peter U. Clark,et al.  The role of the thermohaline circulation in abrupt climate change , 2002, Nature.

[71]  D. Meadows,et al.  The Limits to Growth , 2018, Green Planet Blues.

[72]  T. Wigley,et al.  A Stellar View on Solar Variations and Climate , 2004, Science.

[73]  L. Miller,et al.  Mass and volume contributions to twentieth-century global sea level rise , 2004, Nature.

[74]  W. Broecker,et al.  Correlations between climate records from North Atlantic sediments and Greenland ice , 1993, Nature.

[75]  Meinrat O. Andreae,et al.  Strong present-day aerosol cooling implies a hot future , 2005, Nature.

[76]  T. Malthus An essay on the principle of population, as it affects the future improvement of society , 2006 .

[77]  H. Wanner,et al.  European Seasonal and Annual Temperature Variability, Trends, and Extremes Since 1500 , 2004, Science.

[78]  B. Santer,et al.  Penetration of Human-Induced Warming into the World's Oceans , 2005, Science.

[79]  J. Dowdeswell The Greenland Ice Sheet and Global Sea-Level Rise , 2006, Science.

[80]  C. Long,et al.  From Dimming to Brightening: Decadal Changes in Solar Radiation at Earth's Surface , 2005, Science.

[81]  F. Keppler,et al.  Methane emissions from terrestrial plants under aerobic conditions , 2006, Nature.

[82]  John H. Campbell,et al.  Biological response to climate change on a tropical mountain , 1999, Nature.

[83]  Monica F. Myers,et al.  Climate change and the resurgence of malaria in the East African highlands , 2002, Nature.

[84]  Y. Huang,et al.  Climate Change as the Dominant Control on Glacial-Interglacial Variations in C3 and C4 Plant Abundance , 2001, Science.

[85]  W. Broecker,et al.  Cooling of Tropical Brazil (5�C) During the Last Glacial Maximum , 1995, Science.

[86]  E. Post,et al.  Synchronization of animal population dynamics by large-scale climate , 2002, Nature.

[87]  P. Ciais,et al.  Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003 , 2005, Nature.

[88]  H. Heinrich,et al.  Origin and Consequences of Cyclic Ice Rafting in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean During the Past 130,000 Years , 1988, Quaternary Research.

[89]  A. Hogg,et al.  Regional insolation forcing of late Quaternary climate change in the Southern Hemisphere , 2005, Nature.

[90]  J. Jouzel,et al.  Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica , 1999, Nature.

[91]  G. Dickens,et al.  The Source and Fate of Massive Carbon Input During the Latest Paleocene Thermal Maximum. , 1999, Science.

[92]  A. Bekker,et al.  Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen , 2004, Nature.

[93]  K. Wolff,et al.  Molecular analysis of plant migration and refugia in the Arctic. , 2000, Science.

[94]  George Sugihara,et al.  Distinguishing random environmental fluctuations from ecological catastrophes for the North Pacific Ocean , 2005, Nature.

[95]  A. Hallam Catastrophes and lesser calamities , 2004 .

[96]  Dennis L. Meadows,et al.  Beyond the limits: Global collapse or a sustainable future , 1993 .

[97]  A. Lister,et al.  Pleistocene to Holocene extinction dynamics in giant deer and woolly mammoth , 2004, Nature.

[98]  P. Sheehan,et al.  Microbialite resurgence after the Late Ordovician extinction , 2004, Nature.

[99]  D. Ceburnis,et al.  Biogenically driven organic contribution to marine aerosol , 2004, Nature.

[100]  H. Herring,et al.  Energy use and energy efficiency in the UK domestic sector up to the year 2010 , 1990 .

[101]  L. Cwynar,et al.  Geographical Variation of Lodgepole Pine in Relation to Population History , 1987, The American Naturalist.

[102]  Jorge Soberón,et al.  Global Mammal Conservation: What Must We Manage? , 2005, Science.

[103]  A. Vieli,et al.  Ice Flow Direction Change in Interior West Antarctica , 2004, Science.

[104]  C. Barbante,et al.  Southern Ocean sea-ice extent, productivity and iron flux over the past eight glacial cycles , 2006, Nature.

[105]  R. Kerr A Few Good Climate Shifters , 2004, Science.

[106]  Smith,et al.  Altered river morphology in south africa related to the permian-triassic extinction , 2000, Science.

[107]  B. Young,et al.  Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming , 2006, Nature.

[108]  Beth Shapiro,et al.  Rise and Fall of the Beringian Steppe Bison , 2004, Science.

[109]  E. Steig Mid-Holocene Climate Change , 1999, Science.

[110]  W. Ruddiman,et al.  The Anthropogenic Greenhouse Era Began Thousands of Years Ago , 2003 .

[111]  L Bengtsson,et al.  Hurricane Threats , 2001, Science.

[112]  T. Sutikna,et al.  Archaeology and age of a new hominin from Flores in eastern Indonesia , 2004, Nature.

[113]  S. Al-Moghrabi,et al.  Increased seasonality in Middle East temperatures during the last interglacial period , 2004, Nature.

[114]  T. Taylor,et al.  Lichen-Like Symbiosis 600 Million Years Ago , 2005, Science.

[115]  Cecilie Mauritzen,et al.  Dilution of the Northern North Atlantic Ocean in Recent Decades , 2005, Science.

[116]  T. Wonnacott,et al.  The Ultimate Resource 2 , 1982 .

[117]  Graham Bell,et al.  Phenotypic consequences of 1,000 generations of selection at elevated CO2 in a green alga , 2004, Nature.

[118]  Richard A. Feely,et al.  Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans , 2004, Science.

[119]  John George Children Esq. F.R.S. XXIII. On the absorption and radiation of heat by gases and vapours, and on the physical connexion of radiation, absorption, and conduction.—The bakerian lecture , 1861 .

[120]  Peter Wilf,et al.  High Plant Diversity in Eocene South America: Evidence from Patagonia , 2003, Science.

[121]  L. Sloan,et al.  Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present , 2001, Science.

[122]  Yumiko Watanabe,et al.  Geochemical evidence for terrestrial ecosystems 2.6 billion years ago , 2000, Nature.

[123]  W. Sutherland,et al.  Pair bonds: Arrival synchrony in migratory birds , 2004, Nature.

[124]  C. Lorius,et al.  Vostok ice core provides 160,000-year record of atmospheric CO2 , 1987, Nature.

[125]  G. Haug,et al.  Rapid changes in the hydrologic cycle of the tropical Atlantic during the last glacial. , 2000, Science.

[126]  G. Turner,et al.  An extant cichlid fish radiation emerged in an extinct Pleistocene lake , 2005, Nature.

[127]  K. Briffa Annual climate variability in the Holocene: interpreting the message of ancient trees , 2000 .

[128]  D. Roy,et al.  The distributions of a wide range of taxonomic groups are expanding polewards , 2006 .

[129]  A. V. Vecchia,et al.  Global pattern of trends in streamflow and water availability in a changing climate , 2005, Nature.

[130]  Wim van Vierssen,et al.  Climate proofing the Netherlands , 2005, Nature.

[131]  B. Cumming,et al.  Greater drought intensity and frequency before AD 1200 in the Northern Great Plains, USA , 1996, Nature.

[132]  E. W. Sinnott,et al.  THE CLIMATIC DISTRIBUTION OF CERTAIN TYPES OF ANGIOSPERM LEAVES , 1916 .

[133]  Joyce E. Penner,et al.  Observational evidence of a change in radiative forcing due to the indirect aerosol effect , 2004, Nature.

[134]  D. Beerling,et al.  A humid climate state during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum , 2004, Nature.

[135]  R. Rothwell,et al.  Low-sea-level emplacement of a very large Late Pleistocene ‘megaturbidite’ in the western Mediterranean Sea , 1998, Nature.

[136]  E. Dutton,et al.  Do Satellites Detect Trends in Surface Solar Radiation? , 2004, Science.

[137]  G. Meehl,et al.  The Importance of Land-Cover Change in Simulating Future Climates , 2005, Science.

[138]  T. Stocker,et al.  Stable Carbon Cycle–Climate Relationship During the Late Pleistocene , 2005, Science.

[139]  L. D. Hinzman,et al.  Disappearing Arctic Lakes , 2005, Science.

[140]  J. Gregory,et al.  Climatic Impact of a Greenland Deglaciation and Its Possible Irreversibility , 2003 .

[141]  G. Hewitt Some genetic consequences of ice ages, and their role in divergence and speciation , 1996 .

[142]  S. Solanki,et al.  Unusual activity of the Sun during recent decades compared to the previous 11,000 years , 2004, Nature.

[143]  L. J. Carter,et al.  Proof of Safety at Yucca Mountain , 2005, Science.

[144]  R. M. Owen,et al.  Dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate as a cause of the carbon isotope excursion at the end of the Paleocene , 1995 .

[145]  S. Hesselbo,et al.  Changes in carbon dioxide during an oceanic anoxic event linked to intrusion into Gondwana coals , 2005, Nature.

[146]  D. Pollard,et al.  Snowball Earth: A thin-ice solution with flowing sea glaciers , 2005 .

[147]  H. Bandelt,et al.  Single, Rapid Coastal Settlement of Asia Revealed by Analysis of Complete Mitochondrial Genomes , 2005, Science.

[148]  R. O'Neill,et al.  The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital , 1997, Nature.

[149]  K. Caldeira,et al.  Oceanography: Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH , 2003, Nature.

[150]  P. Webster,et al.  Changes in Tropical Cyclone Number, Duration, and Intensity in a Warming Environment , 2005, Science.

[151]  F. Chapin,et al.  Ecosystem carbon storage in arctic tundra reduced by long-term nutrient fertilization , 2004, Nature.

[152]  A. Dobson,et al.  Extinctions: A message from the frogs , 2006, Nature.

[153]  H. Elderfield,et al.  Eocene bipolar glaciation associated with global carbon cycle changes , 2005, Nature.

[154]  E. Cook,et al.  Long-Term Aridity Changes in the Western United States , 2004, Science.

[155]  T. Lovejoy Climate change and biodiversity. , 2008, Revue scientifique et technique.

[156]  Scott L Wing,et al.  Transient Floral Change and Rapid Global Warming at the Paleocene-Eocene Boundary , 2005, Science.

[157]  Marc L. Imhoff,et al.  Global patterns in human consumption of net primary production , 2004, Nature.

[158]  T. D. Mitchell,et al.  Ecosystem Service Supply and Vulnerability to Global Change in Europe , 2005, Science.

[159]  H. H. Birks,et al.  Life and times of the Bering land bridge , 1996, Nature.

[160]  R. Alley,et al.  Ice-Sheet and Sea-Level Changes , 2005, Science.

[161]  M. Wara,et al.  Regional climate shifts caused by gradual global cooling in the Pliocene epoch , 2004, Nature.

[162]  S. McLoughlin,et al.  Fungal Proliferation at the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary , 2004, Science.

[163]  G. Miller,et al.  Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction , 2005, Science.

[164]  B. Santer,et al.  Volcanoes and climate: Krakatoa's signature persists in the ocean , 2006, Nature.

[165]  S. Haberle,et al.  The last glacial-Holocene transition in southern Chile. , 2000, Science.

[166]  Eelco J. Rohling,et al.  Similar meltwater contributions to glacial sea level changes from Antarctic and northern ice sheets , 2004, Nature.

[167]  G. Haug,et al.  Polar ocean stratification in a cold climate , 2004, Nature.

[168]  L. Knauth Earth Sciences: Signature required , 2006, Nature.

[169]  K. Emanuel Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years , 2005, Nature.

[170]  Reto Knutti,et al.  Constraints on radiative forcing and future climate change from observations and climate model ensembles , 2002, Nature.

[171]  R. Condit,et al.  Pervasive alteration of tree communities in undisturbed Amazonian forests , 2004, Nature.

[172]  M. Maslin,et al.  Late Cenozoic Moisture History of East Africa , 2004, Science.

[173]  R. Kerr Bumpy Road Ahead for World's Oil , 2005, Science.

[174]  John F. Richards,et al.  The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution.@@@The Earth as Transformed by Human Action: Global and Regional Changes in the Biosphere Over the Past 300 Years. , 1993 .

[175]  P. Tyson,et al.  Global-Regional Linkages in the Earth System , 2002 .

[176]  David J. Thomson,et al.  Coherence established between atmospheric carbon dioxide and global temperature , 1990, Nature.

[177]  P. Jones,et al.  Observed trends in the daily intensity of United Kingdom precipitation. , 2000 .

[178]  A. Coe,et al.  Astronomical pacing of methane release in the Early Jurassic period , 2005, Nature.

[179]  H. Hooghiemstra,et al.  Quaternary Ice-Age dynamics in the Colombian Andes: developing an understanding of our legacy. , 2004, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[180]  Y. Rosenthal,et al.  Stable sea surface temperatures in the western Pacific warm pool over the past 1.75 million years , 2005, Nature.

[181]  H. Lamb,et al.  Climate, history, and the modern world , 1983 .

[182]  S. Schneider,et al.  Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants , 2003, Nature.

[183]  L. W. Alvarez,et al.  Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction , 1980, Science.

[184]  J. K. Hill,et al.  Rapid responses of British butterflies to opposing forces of climate and habitat change , 2001, Nature.

[185]  T. Kitzberger,et al.  Isozyme variation and recent biogeographical history of the long‐lived conifer Fitzroya cupressoides , 2000 .

[186]  S. Jacobs,et al.  Freshening of the Ross Sea During the Late 20th Century , 2002, Science.

[187]  N. Stern The Economics of Climate Change: Implications of Climate Change for Development , 2007 .

[188]  G. Hewitt The genetic legacy of the Quaternary ice ages , 2000, Nature.

[189]  L. P. Smith,et al.  Biological Significance of Climatic Changes in Britain , 1966 .

[190]  D. Erwin,et al.  Pattern of marine mass extinction near the Permian-Triassic boundary in South China. , 2000, Science.

[191]  B. Schaefer,et al.  Re–Os isotopic age constraints on deposition in the Neoproterozoic Amadeus Basin: implications for the ‘Snowball Earth’ , 2001, Journal of the Geological Society.

[192]  J. Overpeck,et al.  Paleoclimatic Evidence for Future Ice-Sheet Instability and Rapid Sea-Level Rise , 2006, Science.

[193]  Kate E. Jones,et al.  Multiple Causes of High Extinction Risk in Large Mammal Species , 2005, Science.

[194]  S. Stine,et al.  Extreme and persistent drought in California and Patagonia during mediaeval time , 1994, Nature.

[195]  V. Ramaswamy,et al.  The Radiative Signature of Upper Tropospheric Moistening , 2005, Science.

[196]  W. Keatinge,et al.  Winter mortality and cold stress in Yekaterinburg, Russia: interview survey , 1998, BMJ.

[197]  J. Kirschvink,et al.  Low-latitude glaciation in the Palaeoproterozoic era , 1997, Nature.

[198]  A. Hallam Catastrophes and Lesser Calamities: The Causes of Mass Extinctions , 2004 .

[199]  N. Shackleton,et al.  The 100,000-year ice-Age cycle identified and found to lag temperature, carbon dioxide, and orbital eccentricity , 2000, Science.

[200]  M. Bullock,et al.  Conquest By Man , 1954 .

[201]  G. Haug,et al.  The twentieth century was the wettest period in northern Pakistan over the past millennium , 2006, Nature.

[202]  O. Boucher,et al.  Global estimate of aerosol direct radiative forcing from satellite measurements , 2005, Nature.

[203]  Yumiko Watanabe,et al.  Evidence from massive siderite beds for a CO2-rich atmosphere before ~ 1.8 billion years ago , 2004, Nature.

[204]  Stefan Schouten,et al.  High temperatures in the Late Cretaceous Arctic Ocean , 2004, Nature.

[205]  R. Lark,et al.  Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978–2003 , 2005, Nature.

[206]  T. Heaton,et al.  Climate variability in northwest greece during the last interglacial , 1999, Science.

[207]  Donald R. Lowe,et al.  Photosynthetic microbial mats in the 3,416-Myr-old ocean , 2004, Nature.

[208]  Edward Hanna,et al.  Snowfall-Driven Growth in East Antarctic Ice Sheet Mitigates Recent Sea-Level Rise , 2005, Science.

[209]  H. Schneider,et al.  Ferns diversified in the shadow of angiosperms , 2004, Nature.

[210]  C. Both,et al.  Climate change and population declines in a long-distance migratory bird , 2006, Nature.

[211]  C. Nicholson,et al.  Bedout: A Possible End-Permian Impact Crater Offshore of Northwestern Australia , 2004, Science.

[212]  R. Bentley Global oil & gas depletion: an overview , 2002 .

[213]  H. Mooney,et al.  Confronting the human dilemma , 2005, Nature.

[214]  K. Niklas,et al.  The role of Quaternary environmental change in plant macroevolution: the exception or the rule? , 2004, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[215]  R. Morgan,et al.  Energy resources and supply , 1976 .

[216]  E. Rignot,et al.  Changes in the Velocity Structure of the Greenland Ice Sheet , 2006, Science.

[217]  Cathy Whitlock,et al.  Land management: Forests, fires and climate , 2004, Nature.

[218]  J. Andrews,et al.  Forcing of the cold event of 8,200 years ago by catastrophic drainage of Laurentide lakes , 1999, Nature.

[219]  Pagani,et al.  Late miocene atmospheric CO(2) concentrations and the expansion of C(4) grasses , 1999, Science.

[220]  T. Steuber,et al.  Low-latitude seasonality of Cretaceous temperatures in warm and cold episodes , 2005, Nature.

[221]  C. Labandeira,et al.  Response of plant-insect associations to paleocene-eocene warming , 1999, Science.

[222]  A Haines,et al.  Global climate change: the potential effects on health , 1997, BMJ.

[223]  R. Berner The carbon cycle and carbon dioxide over Phanerozoic time: the role of land plants , 1998 .

[224]  L. Brown,et al.  Full House: Reassessing the Earth's Population Carrying Capacity , 1994 .

[225]  Dirk Verschuren,et al.  Rainfall and drought in equatorial east Africa during the past 1,100 years , 2000, Nature.

[226]  G. Manley Central England temperatures: Monthly means 1659 to 1973 , 1974 .

[227]  Douglas H. Erwin,et al.  The Permo–Triassic extinction , 1994, Nature.

[228]  R. Battarbee,et al.  High-resolution record of climate stability in France during the last interglacial period , 2001, Nature.

[229]  P. deMenocal,et al.  Coherent high- and low-latitude climate variability during the holocene warm period , 2000, Science.

[230]  Alan G. Smith,et al.  Oceanic gateways as a critical factor to initiate icehouse Earth , 2003, Journal of the Geological Society.

[231]  R. Betts,et al.  Detection of a direct carbon dioxide effect in continental river runoff records , 2006, Nature.

[232]  A. Timmermann,et al.  Strong hemispheric coupling of glacial climate through freshwater discharge and ocean circulation , 2004, Nature.

[233]  Peter Rothery,et al.  Long-term decline in krill stock and increase in salps within the Southern Ocean , 2004, Nature.

[234]  A. Weaver,et al.  Meltwater Pulse 1A from Antarctica as a Trigger of the Bølling-Allerød Warm Interval , 2003, Science.

[235]  M. Rampino,et al.  Impact Event at the Permian-Triassic Boundary: Evidence from Extraterrestrial Noble Gases in Fullerenes , 2001, Science.

[236]  G. Haug,et al.  North Pacific seasonality and the glaciation of North America 2.7 million years ago , 2005, Nature.

[237]  D. Beerling,et al.  Fossil Plants and Global Warming at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary. , 1999, Science.

[238]  G. Hardin,et al.  The Tragedy of the Commons , 1968, Green Planet Blues.

[239]  Jonathan M. Chase,et al.  Trophic cascades across ecosystems , 2005, Nature.

[240]  R. Petit,et al.  Glacial Refugia: Hotspots But Not Melting Pots of Genetic Diversity , 2003, Science.

[241]  M. Edwards,et al.  Impact of climate change on marine pelagic phenology and trophic mismatch , 2004, Nature.

[242]  L. Bernatchez,et al.  Comparative phylogeography of Nearctic and Palearctic fishes , 1998 .

[243]  Gregg Marland,et al.  THE POTENTIAL OF BIOMASS FUELS IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE: Focus on Transportation Fuels , 2000 .

[244]  David S. G. Thomas,et al.  Multiple episodes of aridity in southern Africa since the last interglacial period , 1997, Nature.

[245]  G. Yohe,et al.  A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems , 2003, Nature.

[246]  D. York,et al.  The age of the Popigai impact event and its relation to events at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary , 1997, Nature.

[247]  E. Maier‐Reimer,et al.  Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms , 2005, Nature.

[248]  J. Lovelock Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth , 1979 .

[249]  P. Pearson,et al.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years , 2000, Nature.

[250]  Christopher J. Nicholas,et al.  Warm tropical sea surface temperatures in the Late Cretaceous and Eocene epochs , 2001, Nature.

[251]  J. Christensen,et al.  Climate modelling: Severe summertime flooding in Europe , 2003, Nature.

[252]  D. Gough Solar interior structure and luminosity variations , 1981 .

[253]  André Berger,et al.  An Exceptionally Long Interglacial Ahead? , 2002, Science.

[254]  P. Forster,et al.  Did Early Humans Go North or South? , 2005, Science.

[255]  Sister Mechtraud join,et al.  Energy and Society , 1956 .

[256]  H. D. Holland Origins of breathable air , 1990, Nature.

[257]  C. Lorius,et al.  Ice-core record of atmospheric methane over the past 160,000 years , 1990, Nature.

[258]  Jörg Keller,et al.  Rapid environmental changes in southern Europe during the last glacial period , 1999, Nature.

[259]  S. Sterling,et al.  Human Appropriation of Photosynthesis Products , 2001, Science.

[260]  M. Wara,et al.  Permanent El Niño-Like Conditions During the Pliocene Warm Period , 2005, Science.

[261]  V. Raleigh,et al.  World population and health in transition , 1999, BMJ.

[262]  G. Ludvigson,et al.  Evidence for increased latent heat transport during the Cretaceous (Albian) greenhouse warming , 2004 .

[263]  Andrew P. Morse,et al.  Malaria early warnings based on seasonal climate forecasts from multi-model ensembles , 2006, Nature.

[264]  W. R. Peltier,et al.  Arctic freshwater forcing of the Younger Dryas cold reversal , 2005, Nature.

[265]  Eelco J. Rohling,et al.  Centennial-scale climate cooling with a sudden cold event around 8,200 years ago , 2005, Nature.

[266]  Shaopeng Huang,et al.  Temperature trends over the past five centuries reconstructed from borehole temperatures , 2000, Nature.

[267]  W. Holbrook,et al.  Critically pressured free-gas reservoirs below gas-hydrate provinces , 2004, Nature.

[268]  P. Stott,et al.  Human influence on increasing Arctic river discharges , 2005 .

[269]  S. Watts SARS: A Case Study in Emerging Infections , 2005 .

[270]  B. Runnegar,et al.  Megascopic eukaryotic algae from the 2.1-billion-year-old negaunee iron-formation, Michigan. , 1992, Science.

[271]  ENERGY POLICY IN THE U.S. , 1974 .

[272]  L. Maugeri,et al.  Oil: Never Cry Wolf--Why the Petroleum Age Is Far from over , 2004, Science.

[273]  P. Ehrlich,et al.  IMPACT OF POPULATION GROWTH , 1971, Science.

[274]  D. Matthews Global change: The water cycle freshens up , 2006, Nature.

[275]  J. P. Kennett,et al.  Abrupt deep-sea warming, palaeoceanographic changes and benthic extinctions at the end of the Palaeocene , 1991, Nature.

[276]  D. Richards,et al.  Wet periods in northeastern Brazil over the past 210 kyr linked to distant climate anomalies , 2004, Nature.

[277]  J. Zachos,et al.  Astronomical pacing of late Palaeocene to early Eocene global warming events , 2005, Nature.

[278]  T. Stocker,et al.  Atmospheric Methane and Nitrous Oxide of the Late Pleistocene from Antarctic Ice Cores , 2005, Science.

[279]  S. Marshall,et al.  Substantial contribution to sea-level rise during the last interglacial from the Greenland ice sheet , 2000, Nature.

[280]  Andrew J. McMichael,et al.  Planetary Overload. Global Environmental Change and the Health of the Human Species , 1995 .

[281]  Bruce P. Finney,et al.  Reduced growth of Alaskan white spruce in the twentieth century from temperature-induced drought stress , 2000, Nature.

[282]  R. Fairbanks,et al.  Tertiary oxygen isotope synthesis, sea level history, and continental margin erosion , 1987 .

[283]  S. McCallum,et al.  Stability of the Larsen B ice shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula during the Holocene epoch , 2005, Nature.

[284]  T. Barnett,et al.  Potential impacts of a warming climate on water availability in snow-dominated regions , 2005, Nature.

[285]  F. H. Schweingruber,et al.  Influence of volcanic eruptions on Northern Hemisphere summer temperature over the past 600 years , 1998, Nature.

[286]  F. Chapin,et al.  Role of Land-Surface Changes in Arctic Summer Warming , 2005, Science.

[287]  J. Schopf,et al.  The Proterozoic Biosphere: The Proterozoic Biosphere , 1992 .

[288]  M. K. Hughes,et al.  Influence of snowfall and melt timing on tree growth in subarctic Eurasia , 1999, Nature.

[289]  A. J. Kaufman,et al.  High CO2 levels in the Proterozoic atmosphere estimated from analyses of individual microfossils , 2003, Nature.

[290]  G. Chaubey,et al.  Reconstructing the Origin of Andaman Islanders , 2005, Science.

[291]  R. Norris,et al.  Abrupt reversal in ocean overturning during the Palaeocene/Eocene warm period , 2006, Nature.

[292]  E. Marshall Pre-Clovis Sites Fight for Acceptance , 2001, Science.

[293]  R. Hirsch,et al.  Peaking of world oil production: Impacts, mitigation, & risk management , 2005 .