A simplified equivalent circuit model for simulation of Pb–acid batteries at load for energy storage application

Three main types of battery chemistries in consideration for vehicle applications are Pb–acid, nickel–metal hydride, and lithium-ion batteries. Lead–acid batteries are widely used in traditional automotive applications for many years. Higher voltage, high-rate discharge capability, good specific energy, lower temperature performance, lower thermal management requirement, and low-cost in both manufacturing and recycling are the advantages of the rechargeable battery. Disadvantages of the lead–acid battery are: weight concerns of lead metal (lower energy density and lower power density) and limited cycle-life (especially in deep-cycle duties). If two major disadvantages have been significantly changed to a proper state to compete with other battery chemistries, the Pb–acid battery is still a good candidate in considering of cost/performance ratio. The lead–acid battery is always a good power source for fast starting of cold vehicles, for recharging from either a stop-start braking system, or for a charge from the engine itself, which consumes battery energy or stores electricity back into chemical energy. The main reasons for reexamining this battery chemistry are cost-savings and life-cycling considerations upon advances in electrode structure design and enhancement of capacitance behavior inside the battery pack. Several Pb–acid batteries were evaluated and tested through a unique method, i.e., the electrochemical impedance method at different loads, in order to characterize and further understand the improved electrode processes and mechanisms in performance enhancement. The impedance data at loads were collected from these lead–acid batteries at load for further analysis. Battery electrode behaviors are evaluated through impedance data simulation using a proper equivalent circuit model. A defective battery and a failed Pb–acid battery were used in non-destructive analysis. The recent Pb–acid battery advancement in structures and designs and its potential application are also discussed for power reserve in energy-efficient vehicles and sustainable electricity storage.