Socially Assistive Robotics

Socially assistive robotics (SAR) aims to address critical areas and gaps in care by automating supervision, coaching, motivation, and companion ship aspects of one-on-one interactions with individuals from various large and growing populations, including stroke survivors, the elderly and individuals with dementia, and children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). This article examines the ethical challenges of SAR from three points of view (user, caregiver, and peer) using core principles from medical ethics (autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice) to determine how intended and unintended effects of SAR can impact the delivery of care.

[1]  E. Deci,et al.  On the Importance of Self-Determination for Intrinsically-Motivated Behavior , 1978 .

[2]  E. Calle,et al.  Overweight, obesity and cancer: epidemiological evidence and proposed mechanisms , 2004, Nature Reviews Cancer.

[3]  B. Scassellati,et al.  Inferring narrative and intention from playground games , 2008, 2008 7th IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning.

[4]  Lauren M. Schmitt,et al.  The Clinical Use of Robots for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Critical Review. , 2012, Research in autism spectrum disorders.

[5]  S. Athar.  Principles of Biomedical Ethics , 2011, The Journal of IMA.

[6]  Kerstin Dautenhahn,et al.  Applying Mobile Robot Technology to the Rehabilitation of Autistic Children , 1999 .

[7]  Jodi Forlizzi,et al.  The Snackbot: Documenting the design of a robot for long-term Human-Robot Interaction , 2009, 2009 4th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[8]  Christoph Bartneck,et al.  Interacting with an embodied emotional character , 2003, DPPI '03.

[9]  A. Streri,et al.  Perception of object shape and texture in human newborns: evidence from cross-modal transfer tasks. , 2007, Developmental science.

[10]  R. Riener,et al.  ARMin - design of a novel arm rehabilitation robot , 2005, 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, 2005. ICORR 2005..

[11]  Takanori Shibata,et al.  Analysis of factors that bring mental effects to elderly people in robot assisted activity , 2002, IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.

[12]  S. Hesse,et al.  Robot-assisted arm trainer for the passive and active practice of bilateral forearm and wrist movements in hemiparetic subjects. , 2003, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[13]  Bilge Mutlu,et al.  Robots in organizations: The role of workflow, social, and environmental factors in human-robot interaction , 2008, 2008 3rd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[14]  C. Winstein,et al.  Effects of physical guidance and knowledge of results on motor learning: support for the guidance hypothesis. , 1994, Research quarterly for exercise and sport.

[15]  Paige E. Scalf,et al.  Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, and aging. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[16]  A. S. Singh,et al.  Tracking of childhood overweight into adulthood: a systematic review of the literature , 2008, Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity.

[17]  Clifford Nass,et al.  The media equation - how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places , 1996 .

[18]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  Encouraging physical therapy compliance with a hands-Off mobile robot , 2006, HRI '06.

[19]  Carl R. Rogers,et al.  Empathic: An Unappreciated Way of Being , 1975 .

[20]  Zhihai He,et al.  Recognizing Falls from Silhouettes , 2006, 2006 International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[21]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  The role of physical embodiment in human-robot interaction , 2006, ROMAN 2006 - The 15th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[22]  Cory D. Kidd,et al.  Relational artifacts with children and elders: the complexities of cybercompanionship , 2006, Connect. Sci..

[23]  Elizabeth S. Kim,et al.  Social Robots as Embedded Reinforcers of Social Behavior in Children with Autism , 2012, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.

[24]  M. Silver,et al.  Evaluation of a New Computer Intervention to Teach People with Autism or Asperger Syndrome to Recognize and Predict Emotions in Others , 2001, Autism : the international journal of research and practice.

[25]  David Jarjoura,et al.  Effectiveness of a group exercise program in a long-term care facility: a randomized pilot trial. , 2003, Journal of the American Medical Directors Association.

[26]  D. Spruijt-Metz.  Etiology, Treatment and Prevention of Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence: A Decade in Review. , 2011, Journal of research on adolescence : the official journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence.

[27]  F. Volkmar,et al.  Brief Report: Interrater Reliability of Clinical Diagnosis and DSM-IV Criteria for Autistic Disorder: Results of the DSM-IV Autism Field Trial , 2000, Journal of autism and developmental disorders.

[28]  E. Paykel,et al.  Life events, Social support and depression , 1994, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum.

[29]  F. Volkmar,et al.  Autism in infancy and early childhood. , 2005, Annual review of psychology.

[30]  C. Datta,et al.  Design, implementation and field tests of a socially assistive robot for the elderly: HealthBot version 2 , 2012, 2012 4th IEEE RAS & EMBS International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (BioRob).

[31]  Maja J Matarić,et al.  Socially Assistive Robotics for Post-stroke Rehabilitation Journal of Neuroengineering and Rehabilitation Socially Assistive Robotics for Post-stroke Rehabilitation , 2007 .

[32]  Joseph P Broderick,et al.  William M. Feinberg Lecture: stroke therapy in the year 2025: burden, breakthroughs, and barriers to progress. , 2003, Stroke.

[33]  Robert J. Vallerand,et al.  The Effect of Differential Amounts of Positive Verbal Feedback on the Intrinsic Motivation of Male Hockey Players , 1983 .

[34]  C. Richards,et al.  Arm and leg impairments and disabilities after stroke rehabilitation: relation to handicap , 2003, Clinical rehabilitation.

[35]  D Dawe,et al.  Low-intensity, range-of-motion exercise: invaluable nursing care for elderly patients. , 1995, Journal of advanced nursing.

[36]  Ira B. Perelle,et al.  Assessment of the Effectiveness of a Pet Facilitated Therapy Program in a Nursing Home Setting , 1993 .

[37]  M. Matarić,et al.  A hands-off physical therapy assistance robot for cardiac patients , 2005, 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, 2005. ICORR 2005..

[38]  Candace L. Sidner,et al.  A First Experiment in Engagement for Human-Robot Interaction in Hosting Activities , 2005 .

[39]  Eric Stice,et al.  Prospective relations between social support and depression: differential direction of effects for parent and peer support? , 2004, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[40]  P. Mitchell,et al.  The potential of virtual reality in social skills training for people with autistic spectrum disorders. , 2002, Journal of intellectual disability research : JIDR.

[41]  Daniel C. Richardson,et al.  Multimodal events and moving locations: eye movements of adults and 6-month-olds reveal dynamic spatial indexing. , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[42]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  Using Socially Assistive Human–Robot Interaction to Motivate Physical Exercise for Older Adults , 2012, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[43]  Adriana Tapus,et al.  User Personality Matching with a Hands-Off Robot for Post-stroke Rehabilitation Therapy , 2006, ISER.

[44]  François Martin,et al.  Animal-Assisted Therapy for Children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders , 2002, Western journal of nursing research.

[45]  Cordula Werner,et al.  Poststroke Motor Dysfunction and Spasticity , 2003, CNS drugs.

[46]  R. Sturm,et al.  The effects of obesity, smoking, and drinking on medical problems and costs. , 2002, Health affairs.

[47]  Takanori Shibata,et al.  Psychological and Social Effects of One Year Robot Assisted Activity on Elderly People at a Health Service Facility for the Aged , 2005, Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[48]  Fred R. Volkmar,et al.  Issues in the Classification of Autism and Related Conditions , 2005 .

[49]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  The effect of presence on human-robot interaction , 2008, RO-MAN 2008 - The 17th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[50]  M. Matarić,et al.  Benchmarks for evaluating socially assistive robotics , 2007 .

[51]  Edward L. Deci,et al.  An Instrument to Assess Adults' Orientations toward Control versus Autonomy with Children: Reflections on Intrinsic Motivation and Perceived Competence. , 1981 .

[52]  S. Wolf,et al.  Repetitive Task Practice: A Critical Review of Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy in Stroke , 2002, The neurologist.

[53]  E. Roth,et al.  The American Heart Association Stroke Outcome Classification. , 1998, Stroke.

[54]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  Embodiment and Human-Robot Interaction: A Task-Based Perspective , 2007, RO-MAN 2007 - The 16th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[55]  Jean Scholtz,et al.  Common metrics for human-robot interaction , 2006, HRI '06.

[56]  Ronald C. Arkin,et al.  Governing lethal behavior: Embedding ethics in a hybrid deliberative/reactive robot architecture part I: Motivation and philosophy , 2008, 2008 3rd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[57]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  Toward Socially Assistive Robotics for Augmenting Interventions for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders , 2008, ISER.

[58]  Aude Billard,et al.  Robotic assistants in therapy and education of children with autism: can a small humanoid robot help encourage social interaction skills? , 2005, Universal Access in the Information Society.

[59]  D. Massaro,et al.  Development and Evaluation of a Computer-Animated Tutor for Vocabulary and Language Learning in Children with Autism , 2003, Journal of autism and developmental disorders.

[60]  M. Goran,et al.  Examining metabolic syndrome definitions in overweight Hispanic youth: a focus on insulin resistance. , 2008, The Journal of pediatrics.

[61]  M. Mcmurdo,et al.  A controlled trial of exercise by residents of old people's homes. , 1993, Age and ageing.

[62]  Cynthia D. Fisher,et al.  The effects of personal control, competence, and extrinsic reward systems on intrinsic motivation , 1978 .

[63]  L A Redefer,et al.  Brief report: Pet-facilitated therapy with autistic children , 1989, Journal of autism and developmental disorders.

[64]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  The Physical Presence of a Robot Tutor Increases Cognitive Learning Gains , 2012, CogSci.

[65]  Illah R. Nourbakhsh,et al.  A survey of socially interactive robots , 2003, Robotics Auton. Syst..

[66]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Bridging the research gap , 2012, HRI 2012.

[67]  Cory D. Kidd,et al.  An Interactive Robot in a Nursing Home: Preliminary Remarks , 2005 .

[68]  Linda B. Smith.  Cognition as a dynamic system: Principles from embodiment , 2005 .

[69]  J. H. van der Lee,et al.  Forced use of the upper extremity in chronic stroke patients: results from a single-blind randomized clinical trial. , 1999, Stroke.

[70]  H. F. Machiel van der Loos,et al.  Development of robots for rehabilitation therapy: the Palo Alto VA/Stanford experience. , 2000, Journal of rehabilitation research and development.

[71]  Garrett Grindle,et al.  A perspective on intelligent devices and environments in medical rehabilitation. , 2008, Medical engineering & physics.

[72]  M. Matarić,et al.  The use of socially assistive robots in the design of intelligent cognitive therapies for people with dementia , 2009, 2009 IEEE International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics.

[73]  Angeliki Metallinou,et al.  Audio-Visual Emotion Recognition Using Gaussian Mixture Models for Face and Voice , 2008, 2008 Tenth IEEE International Symposium on Multimedia.

[74]  Ben J. A. Kröse,et al.  Assessing Acceptance of Assistive Social Agent Technology by Older Adults: the Almere Model , 2010, Int. J. Soc. Robotics.

[75]  Henrik I. Christensen,et al.  "My Roomba Is Rambo": Intimate Home Appliances , 2007, UbiComp.

[76]  M. Field,et al.  The Future of Disability in America , 2007 .

[77]  S. Wood-Dauphinée,et al.  Assessing quality of life in clinical research: from where have we come and where are we going? , 1999, Journal of clinical epidemiology.

[78]  M.J. Mataric,et al.  Hands-off assistive robotics for post-stroke arm rehabilitation , 2005, 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, 2005. ICORR 2005..

[79]  Roberta L. Klatzky,et al.  Feedback distortion to overcome learned nonuse: a system overview , 2003, Proceedings of the 25th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (IEEE Cat. No.03CH37439).

[80]  L. Barsalou.  Situated simulation in the human conceptual system , 2003 .

[81]  P. A. Hageman,et al.  Can neuromuscular strength and function in people with dementia be rehabilitated using resistance-exercise training? Results from a preliminary intervention study. , 2003, The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences.

[82]  Adriana Tapus,et al.  User—robot personality matching and assistive robot behavior adaptation for post-stroke rehabilitation therapy , 2008, Intell. Serv. Robotics.

[83]  Cynthia Breazeal,et al.  Effect of a robot on user perceptions , 2004, 2004 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (IEEE Cat. No.04CH37566).

[84]  Allen W Heinemann,et al.  State-of-the-Science on Postacute Rehabilitation: Setting a Research Agenda and Developing an Evidence Base for Practice and Public Policy. An Introduction , 2008, Assistive technology : the official journal of RESNA.

[85]  Maja J. Matarić,et al.  Music Therapist Robot: A Solution for Helping People with Cognitive Impairments , 2009, IJCAI 2009.

[86]  B. Dobkin.  Rehabilitation after Stroke , 2005 .

[87]  G. R. Liem,et al.  Performance and satisfaction as affected by personal control over salient decisions. , 1975 .

[88]  K. Mauritz,et al.  Repetitive training of isolated movements improves the outcome of motor rehabilitation of the centrally paretic hand , 1995, Journal of the Neurological Sciences.

[89]  Maja J. Mataric,et al.  Automated administration of the Wolf Motor Function Test for post-stroke assessment , 2010, 2010 4th International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare.

[90]  N. Hogan,et al.  Robot-Aided Neurorehabilitation: From Evidence-Based to Science-Based Rehabilitation , 2002, Topics in stroke rehabilitation.

[91]  Andrea Lockerd Thomaz,et al.  Perspective Taking: An Organizing Principle for Learning in Human-Robot Interaction , 2006, AAAI.

[92]  C. Breazeal,et al.  Robots that imitate humans , 2002, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[93]  E. Taub,et al.  Improved motor recovery after stroke and massive cortical reorganization following Constraint-Induced Movement therapy. , 2003, Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America.

[94]  F. Michaud,et al.  Using proprioceptive sensors for categorizing interactions , 2006 .

[95]  L. George,et al.  Social Support and the Outcome of Major Depression , 1989, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[96]  Henrik I. Christensen,et al.  Embodied social interaction for robots , 2005 .

[97]  John O. Willis,et al.  Mullen Scales of Early Learning: Ags Edition , 2008 .

[98]  D.J. Reinkensmeyer,et al.  Web-based telerehabilitation for the upper extremity after stroke , 2002, IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering.

[99]  Linda B. Smith,et al.  A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action , 2007, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[100]  S A Stansfeld,et al.  Social support and psychiatric sickness absence: a prospective study of British civil servants , 1997, Psychological Medicine.

[101]  Jeffrey P Koplan,et al.  Preventing childhood obesity: health in the balance: executive summary. , 2005, Journal of the American Dietetic Association.

[102]  W. Spirduso,et al.  Replication of age and physical activity effects on reaction and movement time. , 1978, Journal of gerontology.

[103]  D Strickland,et al.  Virtual reality for the treatment of autism. , 1997, Studies in health technology and informatics.

[104]  P. Buerhaus,et al.  Current and future state of the US nursing workforce. , 2008, JAMA.

[105]  A. Kramer,et al.  Fitness Effects on the Cognitive Function of Older Adults , 2003, Psychological science.

[106]  Sara B. Kiesler,et al.  Cooperation with a robotic assistant , 2002, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[107]  James H Rimmer,et al.  Exercise and physical activity in persons aging with a physical disability. , 2005, Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America.

[108]  François Michaud,et al.  RoboToy Contest – Designing Mobile Robotic Toys for Autistic Children , 2001 .

[109]  A. Agrawal,et al.  The association between perceived interpersonal social support and physical and mental health: results from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. , 2010, Journal of public health.

[110]  K. M. Lee,et al.  Effects of Physical Embodiment on Social Presence of Social Robots , 2004 .

[111]  Kerstin Dautenhahn,et al.  Eliciting Requirements for a Robotic Toy for Children with Autism - Results from User Panels , 2007, RO-MAN 2007 - The 16th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[112]  J. P. Miller,et al.  Effect of constraint-induced movement therapy on upper extremity function 3 to 9 months after stroke: the EXCITE randomized clinical trial. , 2006, JAMA.

[113]  Umit Tas,et al.  Prognostic factors of disability in older people: a systematic review. , 2007, The British journal of general practice : the journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners.

[114]  B. Collins,et al.  A social ecology of hyperactive boys: medication effects in structured classroom environments. , 1979, Journal of applied behavior analysis.

[115]  Hideki Kozima,et al.  Interactive robots for communication-care: a case-study in autism therapy , 2005, ROMAN 2005. IEEE International Workshop on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, 2005..

[116]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  The Grand Challenges in Socially Assistive Robotics , 2007 .

[117]  S. Turkle.  Relational Artifacts/Children/Elders : The Complexities of CyberCompanions , 2006 .

[118]  Monica N. Nicolescu,et al.  Task Learning through Imitation and Human-robot Interaction , 2005 .

[119]  C. Winstein,et al.  Motor learning after unilateral brain damage , 1999, Neuropsychologia.

[120]  R. Vallerand,et al.  On the causal effects of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive evaluation theory. , 1984 .

[121]  Maja J. Matarić,et al.  Primitive-Based Movement Classification for Humanoid Imitation , 2000 .

[122]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  How Social Robots Will Help Us to Diagnose, Treat, and Understand Autism , 2005, ISRR.

[123]  A. Bailey,et al.  Autism and pervasive developmental disorders , 2004 .

[124]  Marek P. Michalowski,et al.  A spatial model of engagement for a social robot , 2006, 9th IEEE International Workshop on Advanced Motion Control, 2006..

[125]  B. Leventhal,et al.  The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Generic: A Standard Measure of Social and Communication Deficits Associated with the Spectrum of Autism , 2000, Journal of autism and developmental disorders.

[126]  Katherine D. Tsatsanis,et al.  Neuropsychological Characteristics in Autism and Related Conditions , 2005 .

[127]  Susan R. Fussell,et al.  Anthropomorphic Interactions with a Robot and Robot–like Agent , 2008 .

[128]  D. Spruijt-Metz,et al.  Pediatric obesity and insulin resistance: chronic disease risk and implications for treatment and prevention beyond body weight modification. , 2005, Annual review of nutrition.

[129]  Timothy W. Bickmore,et al.  Establishing and maintaining long-term human-computer relationships , 2005, TCHI.

[130]  G. Kwakkel,et al.  Intensity of leg and arm training after primary middle-cerebral-artery stroke: a randomised trial , 1999, The Lancet.

[131]  W. Dietz,et al.  The Relation of Overweight to Cardiovascular Risk Factors Among Children and Adolescents: The Bogalusa Heart Study , 1999, Pediatrics.

[132]  A. Beck.  Between pets and people , 1983 .

[133]  O. Hetzroni,et al.  Effects of a Computer-Based Intervention Program on the Communicative Functions of Children with Autism , 2004, Journal of autism and developmental disorders.

[134]  E. Finkelstein,et al.  Annual medical spending attributable to obesity: payer-and service-specific estimates. , 2009, Health affairs.

[135]  Charles Kemp,et al.  Bayesian models of cognition , 2008 .

[136]  J. Ware,et al.  International quality of life assessment (IQOLA) project , 1992, Quality of Life Research.

[137]  S. Wood-Dauphinée,et al.  Activity, participation, and quality of life 6 months poststroke. , 2002, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[138]  Cynthia Breazeal,et al.  Designing sociable robots , 2002 .

[139]  N. Schweighofer,et al.  Task-Oriented Rehabilitation Robotics , 2012, American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation.

[140]  T. Olsen,et al.  Arm and leg paresis as outcome predictors in stroke rehabilitation. , 1990, Stroke.

[141]  Cory D. Kidd,et al.  A sociable robot to encourage social interaction among the elderly , 2006, Proceedings 2006 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2006. ICRA 2006..

[142]  C. Winstein.  Knowledge of results and motor learning--implications for physical therapy. , 1991, Physical therapy.

[143]  Takayuki Kanda,et al.  What is a Human? - Toward Psychological Benchmarks in the Field of Human-Robot Interaction , 2006, ROMAN 2006 - The 15th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[144]  S. Mcginnis,et al.  The impact of the aging population on the health workforce in the United States--summary of key findings. , 2006, Cahiers de sociologie et de demographie medicales.

[145]  C. Nass,et al.  Does computer-synthesized speech manifest personality? Experimental tests of recognition, similarity-attraction, and consistency-attraction. , 2001 .

[146]  N. Sharkey,et al.  The crying shame of robot nannies: An ethical appraisal , 2010 .

[147]  François Michaud,et al.  Using proprioceptive sensors for categorizing human-robot interactions , 2007, 2007 2nd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[148]  P. Zeitler,et al.  Insulin resistance, obesity, and related disorders among black adolescents. , 1996, The Journal of pediatrics.

[149]  L G Grimm,et al.  Freedom of choice and behavioral change. , 1978, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[150]  B. Rosen,et al.  Motor Recovery and Cortical Reorganization after Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy in Stroke Patients: A Preliminary Study , 2002, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[151]  Noel E. Sharkey,et al.  Living with robots: Ethical tradeoffs in eldercare , 2010 .

[152]  R. Schmidt,et al.  Reduced frequency of knowledge of results enhances motor skill learning. , 1990 .

[153]  George Forman,et al.  Where's the Action in Knowing? , 1983 .

[154]  T. Tamura,et al.  Is an entertainment robot useful in the care of elderly people with severe dementia? , 2004, The journals of gerontology. Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences.

[155]  Daniel C. Richardson,et al.  The Art of Conversation Is Coordination , 2007, Psychological science.

[156]  B. Kemp,et al.  What the rehabilitation professional and the consumer need to know. , 2005, Physical medicine and rehabilitation clinics of North America.

[157]  R. Nudo,et al.  Role of adaptive plasticity in recovery of function after damage to motor cortex , 2001, Muscle & nerve.

[158]  Hiroshi Nakajima,et al.  The functionality of human-machine collaboration systems - mind model and social behavior , 2003, SMC'03 Conference Proceedings. 2003 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics. Conference Theme - System Security and Assurance (Cat. No.03CH37483).

[159]  Ronald C. Arkin.  Governing Lethal Behavior: Embedding Ethics in a Hybrid Deliberative/Reactive Robot Architecture - Part 2: Formalization for Ethical Control , 2008, AGI.

[160]  Tetsuo Ono,et al.  Development and evaluation of interactive humanoid robots , 2004, Proceedings of the IEEE.

[161]  W. Rymer,et al.  Understanding and treating arm movement impairment after chronic brain injury: progress with the ARM guide. , 2014, Journal of rehabilitation research and development.

[162]  S. Hesse,et al.  Upper and lower extremity robotic devices for rehabilitation and for studying motor control , 2003, Current opinion in neurology.

[163]  Suzanne G. Leveille,et al.  Sex differences in the prevalence of mobility disability in old age: the dynamics of incidence, recovery, and mortality. , 2000, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[164]  B. Scassellati,et al.  Robots for use in autism research. , 2012, Annual review of biomedical engineering.

[165]  D. Feil-Seifer,et al.  Defining socially assistive robotics , 2005, 9th International Conference on Rehabilitation Robotics, 2005. ICORR 2005..