A model of character recognition and legibility.

This article presents a model of character recognition and the experiments used to develop and test it. The model applies to foveal viewing of blurred or unblurred characters and to tactile sensing of raised characters using the fingerpad. The primary goal of the model is to account for variations in legibility across character sets; a secondary goal is to account for variations in the cell entries of the confusion matrix for a given character set. The model consists of two distinct processing stages. The first involves transformation of each stimulus into an internal representation; this transformation consists of linear low-pass spatial filtering followed by nonlinear compression of stimulus intensity. The second stage involves both template matching of the transformed test stimulus with each of the stored internal representations of the characters within the set and response selection, which is assumed to conform to the unbiased choice model of Luce (1963). Though purely stimulus driven, the model accounts quite well for differences in the legibility of character sets differing in character type, size of character, and number of characters within the set; it is somewhat less successful in accounting for the details of each confusion matrix.

[1]  B Hughes,et al.  Perceptual learning of spatiotemporal events: evidence from an unfamiliar modality. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[2]  J T Townsend,et al.  Feature sensitivity, bias, and interdependencies as a function of energy and payoffs , 1988, Perception & psychophysics.

[3]  R. Shepard,et al.  Toward a universal law of generalization for psychological science. , 1987, Science.

[4]  S Millar,et al.  Perceptual and Task Factors in Fluent Braille , 1987, Perception.

[5]  F. Blommaert,et al.  Letter Recognition at Low Contrast Levels: Effects of Letter Size , 1987, Perception.

[6]  Slater E. Newman,et al.  Braille learning: Relative importance of seven variables† , 1987 .

[7]  Stephen Grossberg,et al.  Competitive Learning: From Interactive Activation to Adaptive Resonance , 1987, Cogn. Sci..

[8]  M R Dawson,et al.  The multidimensional analysis of asymmetries in alphabetic confusion matrices: Evidence for global-to-local and local-to-global processing , 1986, Perception & psychophysics.

[9]  G. Legge,et al.  Psychophysics of reading—I. Normal vision , 1985, Vision Research.

[10]  J C Craig,et al.  Attending to two fingers: Two hands are better than one , 1985, Perception & psychophysics.

[11]  J. Muise,et al.  Alphabetic confusion: A clarification , 1985, Perception & psychophysics.

[12]  L O Harvey,et al.  Identification confusions among letters of the alphabet. , 1984, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[13]  Ion P. Beldie,et al.  The Relative Suitability of Four Dot--Matrix Sizes for Text Presentation on Color Television Screens , 1983 .

[14]  K O Johnson,et al.  A comparison of visual and two modes of tactual letter resolution , 1983, Perception & psychophysics.

[15]  James T. Townsend,et al.  Mathematical models of recognition and confusion in psychology , 1983 .

[16]  J T Townsend,et al.  Experimental test of contemporary mathematical models of visual letter recognition. , 1982, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[17]  J C Craig,et al.  Vibrotactile masking: A comparison of energy and pattern maskers , 1982, Perception & psychophysics.

[18]  James T. Townsend,et al.  An experimental and theoretical investigation of the constant-ratio rule and other models of visual letter confusion , 1982 .

[19]  M. S. Mayzner,et al.  Application of geometric models to letter recognition: distance and density. , 1982, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[20]  K. O. Johnson,et al.  Tactile spatial resolution. II. Neural representation of Bars, edges, and gratings in monkey primary afferents. , 1981, Journal of neurophysiology.

[21]  K O Johnson,et al.  Tactile spatial resolution. I. Two-point discrimination, gap detection, grating resolution, and letter recognition. , 1981, Journal of neurophysiology.

[22]  K. O. Johnson,et al.  Tactile spatial resolution. III. A continuum mechanics model of skin predicting mechanoreceptor responses to bars, edges, and gratings. , 1981, Journal of neurophysiology.

[23]  M. S. Mayzner,et al.  The letter-frequency effect and the generality of familiarity effects on perception , 1981, Perception & psychophysics.

[24]  G. Keren,et al.  Recognition models of alphanumeric characters. , 1981, Perception & psychophysics.

[25]  J. M. Foley,et al.  Contrast masking in human vision. , 1980, Journal of the Optical Society of America.

[26]  Herman Bouma,et al.  On the Legibility of Segmented Numerals , 1980 .

[27]  J C Craig,et al.  Modes of vibrotactile pattern generation. , 1980, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[28]  Sidney L. Smith.  Letter Size and Legibility1 , 1979 .

[29]  G C Gilmore,et al.  Multidimensional letter similarity derived from recognition errors , 1979, Perception & psychophysics.

[30]  James C. Craig,et al.  A Confusion matrix for tactually presented letters , 1979 .

[31]  H. L. Snyder,et al.  The Sensitivity of Response Measures of Alphanumeric Legibility to Variations in Dot Matrix Display Parameters , 1979, Human factors.

[32]  G C Oden,et al.  A fuzzy logical model of letter identification. , 1979, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[33]  Jack M. Loomis,et al.  Lateral masking in foveal and eccentric vision , 1978, Vision Research.

[34]  Sidney L. Smith,et al.  The Limited Readability of Lansdell Numerals , 1978 .

[35]  J C Craig,et al.  Vibrotactile pattern perception: extraordinary observers. , 1977, Science.

[36]  James T. Burnette,et al.  Font Comparisons for 5 × 7 Dot Matrix Characters , 1977, Human factors.

[37]  Morris B. Holbrook,et al.  A comparison of methods for measuring the interletter similarity between capital letters , 1975 .

[38]  Jack M. Loomis,et al.  A comparison of tactile and blurred visual form perception , 1975 .

[39]  L. H. Geyer,et al.  Feature lists and confusion matrices , 1973 .

[40]  Jones Gb,et al.  Correlation and letter recognition. , 1973 .

[41]  H. Bouma.  Visual recognition of isolated lower-case letters. , 1971, Vision research.

[42]  Alan S. Neal,et al.  Character Legibility versus Resolution in Image Processing of Printed Matter , 1969 .

[43]  C. Y. Nolan,et al.  Perceptual Factors in Braille Word Recognition. (American Foundation for the Blind. Research Series No. 20). , 1969 .

[44]  Charles W. Eriksen,et al.  Temporal luminance summation effects in backward and forward masking , 1966 .

[45]  J. Gibson.  Observations on active touch. , 1962, Psychological review.

[46]  R. Shepard.  Stimulus and response generalization: deduction of the generalization gradient from a trace model. , 1958, Psychological review.

[47]  Curt Berger,et al.  I. Stroke-width, form and horizontal spacing of numerals as determinants of the threshold of recognition. , 1944 .

[48]  Outlook for the Blind , 1921 .

[49]  Gregory Ashby,et al.  Toward a Unified Theory of Similarity and Recognition , 1988 .

[50]  A. Ginsburg.  Spatial filtering and visual form perception. , 1986 .

[51]  Kenneth R. Boff,et al.  Sensory processes and perception , 1986 .

[52]  L. Kaufman,et al.  Handbook of perception and human performance , 1986 .

[53]  L. Kaufman,et al.  Cognitive processes and performance , 1986 .

[54]  Jack M. Loomis,et al.  Tactile recognition of raised characters: A parametric study , 1985 .

[55]  J T Townsend,et al.  Modeling feature perception in brief displays with evidence for positive interdependencies , 1984, Perception & psychophysics.

[56]  J M Loomis,et al.  Analysis of tactile and visual confusion matrices , 1982, Perception & psychophysics.

[57]  H E Egeth,et al.  Do reaction time and accuracy measure the same aspects of letter recognition? , 1982, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[58]  J. Loomis.  On the tangibility of letters and braille , 1981, Perception & psychophysics.

[59]  K O Johnson,et al.  Neural mechanisms of spatial tactile discrimination: neural patterns evoked by braille‐like dot patterns in the monkey. , 1981, The Journal of physiology.

[60]  Jack M Loornis.  Tactile pattern perception , 1981 .

[61]  D. M. Green,et al.  On the prediction of confusion matrices from similarity judgments , 1979 .

[62]  W. R. Garner,et al.  Reaction time as a measure of inter- and intraobject visual similarity: Letters of the alphabet , 1979 .

[63]  S Coffin,et al.  Spatial frequency analysis of block letters does not predict experimental confusions , 1978, Perception & psychophysics.

[64]  Ralph F. Goldman,et al.  Clothing comfort : interaction of thermal, ventilation, construction, and assessment factors : the Fiber Society, Inc. Comfort Symposium proceedings , 1977 .

[65]  B G Breitmeyer,et al.  Implications of sustained and transient channels for theories of visual pattern masking, saccadic suppression, and information processing. , 1976, Psychological review.

[66]  A. Vallbo,et al.  STIMULUS-RESPONSE FUNCTIONS OF PRIMARY AFFERENTS AND PSYCHOPHYSICAL INTENSITY ESTIMATION ON MECHANICAL SKIN STIMULATION IN THE HUMAN HAND , 1976 .

[67]  James C. Craig,et al.  Vibrotactile difference thresholds for intensity and the effect of a masking stimulus , 1974 .

[68]  M. Turvey.  On peripheral and central processes in vision: inferences from an information-processing analysis of masking with patterned stimuli. , 1973, Psychological review.

[69]  G. R. Engel,et al.  Correlation and letter recognition. , 1973, Canadian journal of psychology.

[70]  J. Townsend.  Theoretical analysis of an alphabetic confusion matrix , 1971 .

[71]  C. Y. Nolan,et al.  Improvement of Tactual Symbols for Blind Children. Final Report. , 1971 .

[72]  M. Tinker.  Legibility of print , 1963 .

[73]  Eugene Galanter,et al.  Handbook of mathematical psychology: I. , 1963 .

[74]  K. Boman.  [On cutaneous sensitivity]. , 1960, Duodecim; laaketieteellinen aikakauskirja.

[75]  Karl Bürklen,et al.  Touch reading of the blind , 1932 .

[76]  Fourth Biennial Report , 2022 .