Additive manufacturing of structural materials

Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, has boomed over the last 30 years, and its use has accelerated during the last 5 years. AM is a materials-oriented manufacturing technology, and printing resolution versus printing scalability/speed trade-off exists among various types of materials, including polymers, metals, ceramics, glasses, and composite materials. Four-dimensional (4D) printing, together with versatile transformation systems, drives researchers to achieve and utilize high dimensional AM. Multiple perspectives of the AM of structural materials have been raised and illustrated in this review, including multimaterial AM (MMa-AM), multi-modulus AM (MMo-AM), multi-scale AM (MSc-AM), multi-system AM (MSyAM), multi-dimensional AM (MD-AM), and multi-function AM (MF-AM). The rapid and tremendous development of AM materials and methods offers great potential for structural applications, such as in the aerospace field, the biomedical field, electronic devices, nuclear industry, flexible and wearable devices, soft sensors, actuators, and robotics, jewelry and art decorations, land transportation, underwater devices, and porous structures. Abbreviations: 2D, Two-dimensional; 3C, Computer, communication, and consumer electronics; 3D, Three-dimensional; 4D, Four-dimensional; ABS, Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; AM, Additive manufacturing; APS, Air plasma spray; BJ, Binder jetting; BMG, Bulk metallic glass; CAD, Computer aided design; CNT, Carbon nanotube; CT, Computed tomography; DED, Direct energy deposition; DFT, Density functional theory; DIW, Direct ink writing; DLD, Direct laser deposition; DLP, Digital light processing; DMLS, Direct metal laser sintering; EBM, Electron beam melting; ECG, Electrocardiogram; EDA, Electrodermal activity; EDC, Elastomerderived ceramic; EEG, Electroencephalogram; EMG, Electromyography; FDM, Fused deposition modeling; FEM, Finite element method; FLDW, Femtosecond laser direct writing; HA, Hydroxyapatite; HARP, High-area rapid printing; HAZ, Heat affected zone; HEA, High entropy alloy; ICs, Integrated circuits; IP, Inkjet printing; LCE, Liquid crystal elastomer; LCST, Lower critical solution temperature; LED, Light emitting diode; LOM, Laminated object manufacturing; LPBF, Laser powder bed fusion; MD-AM, Multi-dimensional additive manufacturing; MEMS, Microelectromechanical system; MF-AM, Multi-function additive manufacturing; MG, Metallica glass; MMa-AM, Multi-material additive manufacturing; MMo-AM, Multi-modulus additive manufacturing; MOF, Metal-organic framework; MPL, Multiphoton lithography; MRI, Magnetic resonance imaging; MSc-AM, Multi-scale additive manufacturing; MSy-AM, Multi-system additive manufacturing; NIR, Near-infrared light; PμSL, Projection micro-stereolithography; PBP, Powder bed printing; PCB, Printed circuit board; PDC, Polymer-derived ceramic; PDMS, Polydimethylsiloxane; PE, Polyethylene; PEGDA, Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate; PET, Polyethylene terephthalate; PETG, Poly(ethylene terephthalateco-1,4-cylclohexylenedimethylene terephthalate; PGS, Poly glycerol sebacate; PLA, Polylactic acid; PMMA, Polymethylmethacrylate; PNIPAM, Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide); PPGDMA, Poly(propylene glycol) dimethacrylate; PPNM, Boracic PE/polyethylene wax blends-open-cell nickel foam composites; PU, Polyurethane; PUV, Printed utility vehicle; PVD, Physical vapor deposition; RFID, Radio frequency identification; SEBM, Selective electron beam melting; SEM, Scanning electron microscopy; SLA, Stereolithography; SLM, Selective laser melting; SLS, Selective laser sintering; SMA, Shape memory alloy; SMP, Shape memory polymer; SPPW, Self-propagating photopolymer wave-guide technology; SPS, Suspension plasma spraying; SS, Stainless steel; TBC, Thermal barrier coating; TENG, Triboelectric nanogenerator; TPL, Twophoton lithography; UAV, Unmanned aerial vehicle; UHS, Ultrafast high-temperature sintering; UV, Ultraviolet. * Corresponding author at: Laboratory of Nanomaterials & Nanomechanics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong,

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