Human sex chromosomes in oral and craniofacial growth.

Studies on tooth crown size and structure in families and in individuals with various sex chromosome anomalies have demonstrated differential direct effects of the human X and Y chromosome genes on growth. The Y chromosome promotes both tooth crown enamel and dentin growth, whereas the effect of the X chromosome on crown growth seems to be restricted to enamel formation. Enamel growth is decisively influenced by cell secretory function and dentin growth by cell proliferation. It is suggested that these differential effects of the X and Y chromosomes on growth explain the expression of sexual dimorphism in various somatic features. These include tooth crown and root size, crown shape and the number of the teeth, and under the assumption of genetic pleiotropy, torus mandibularis, statural growth, and sex ratio. It is of interest that molecular studies have shown that the gene loci for human amelogenin, the major protein component of the organic matrix in enamel are on both the X and Y chromosomes. Future questions include the role of the Y chromosome in the mineralization process, the concentric control of enamel and dentin growth, and gene expression.

[1]  P. Kellokumpu-Lehtinen,et al.  Sex ratio of human conceptuses. , 1984, Obstetrics and gynecology.

[2]  M. Grön.  Effects of human X and Y chromosomes on oral and craniofacial morphology : studies of 46,XY females, 47,XYY males and 45,X/46,XX females , 1999 .

[3]  E. Salido,et al.  The human enamel protein gene amelogenin is expressed from both the X and the Y chromosomes. , 1992, American journal of human genetics.

[4]  M. Ferguson-Smith,et al.  Genes on the Y chromosome influencing rate of maturation in man: skeletal age studies in children with Klinefelter's (XXY) and Turner's (XO) syndromes. , 1959, Lancet.

[5]  P. Polani,et al.  Dermatoglyphics in the testicular feminization syndrome. , 1979, Annals of human biology.

[6]  L. Alvesalo.  Sex chromosomes and human growth , 1997, Human Genetics.

[7]  K. Lindpaintner,et al.  The Y chromosome. Epistatic and ecogenetic interactions in genetic hypertension. , 1996, Hypertension.

[8]  J. Lindsten,et al.  TIME OF ERUPTION OF THE PERMANENT TEETH, CEPHALOMETRIC AND TOOTH MEASUREMENT AND SULPHATION FACTOR ACTIVITY IN 45 PATIENTS WITH TURNER'S SYNDROME WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF X CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS. , 1965, Acta endocrinologica.

[9]  S. Garn,et al.  X-linked Inheritance of Developmental Timing in Man , 1962, Nature.

[10]  C. Cowell,et al.  Growth and Maturation of Patients with Turner's Syndrome , 1983, Pediatric Research.

[11]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Root Lengths in 47,XYY Males’ Permanent Teeth , 2004, Journal of dental research.

[12]  M. Midtbø,et al.  Root length, crown height, and root morphology in Turner syndrome. , 1994, Acta odontologica Scandinavica.

[13]  K. Pietilä,et al.  The craniofacial complex in 47,XYY males. , 1997, Archives of Oral Biology.

[14]  E. F. Harris,et al.  A radiographic assessment of enamel thickness in human maxillary incisors. , 1998, Archives of oral biology.

[15]  D. Morris,et al.  Teeth: Form, Function and Evolution. , 1984 .

[16]  C. Ounsted.  The Y chromosome message , 1985, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[17]  L. Alvesalo.  Dental growth in 47,XYY males and in conditions with other sex-chromosome anomalies , 1985 .

[18]  Professor Ursula Mittwoch.  Males, Females and Hermaphrodites , 1986 .

[19]  M. Ferguson-Smith.  Karyotype-phenotype Correlations in Gonadal Dysgenesis and Their Bearing on the Pathogenesis of Malformations , 1965, Journal of medical genetics.

[20]  J. Simpson.  Disorders of sexual differentiation , 1999, American journal of medical genetics.

[21]  M. Midtbø,et al.  Tooth crown size and morphology in Turner syndrome. , 1994, Acta odontologica Scandinavica.

[22]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Occlusion in 47,XXY (Klinefelter syndrome) men. , 1992, American journal of physical anthropology.

[23]  A. Rosenthal,et al.  Pseudoautosomal deletions encompassing a novel homeobox gene cause growth failure in idiopathic short stature and Turner syndrome , 1997, Nature Genetics.

[24]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Sizes of deciduous teeth in 47,XYY males. , 1977, American journal of human genetics.

[25]  E. Tammisalo,et al.  Enamel thickness of 45,X females' permanent teeth. , 1981, American journal of human genetics.

[26]  G. Townsend,et al.  Reduced tooth size in 45,X (Turner syndrome) females. , 1984, American journal of physical anthropology.

[27]  L. Alvesalo.  The influence of sex-chromosome genes on tooth size in man: a genetic and quantitative study. , 1971, American Journal of Orthodontics.

[28]  G. Townsend,et al.  Tooth size in 47,XYY males: evidence for a direct effect of the Y chromosome on growth. , 1985, Australian dental journal.

[29]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Occlusal morphology in 45,X females. , 1986, Journal of craniofacial genetics and developmental biology.

[30]  G. Townsend,et al.  Tooth crown size in human females with 45,X/46,XX chromosomes. , 1988, Archives of oral biology.

[31]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  The cusp of Carabelli. Occurrence in first upper molars and evaluation of its heritability. , 1975, Acta odontologica Scandinavica.

[32]  G. Townsend,et al.  Upper Central Incisor and Canine Tooth Crown Size in 47,XXY Males , 1991, Journal of dental research.

[33]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Root growth in the permanent teeth of 45,X/46,XX females. , 2006, European journal of orthodontics.

[34]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Permanent tooth sizes in 46,XY females. , 1980, American journal of human genetics.

[35]  J. Simpson.  Disorders of sexual differentiation: Etiology and clinical delineation , 1976 .

[36]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  The 47,XYY male, Y chromosome, and tooth size. , 1977, American journal of human genetics.

[37]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Palatine ridges and tongue position in Turner syndrome subjects. , 2008, European journal of orthodontics.

[38]  L. Alvesalo.  Sex chromosomes and human growth. A dental approach. , 1997, Human genetics.

[39]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  47,XXY males: sex chromosomes and tooth size. , 1980, American journal of human genetics.

[40]  R. Jordan,et al.  The human dentition before birth , 1965 .

[41]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Torus mandibularis in 45,X females (Turner syndrome). , 1996, American journal of physical anthropology.

[42]  R. Lähdesmäki.  Sex chromosomes in human tooth root growth : radiographic studies on 47,XYY males, 46,XY females, 47,XXY males and 45,X/46,XX females , 2006 .

[43]  Intraindividual Root-Length Correlations , 1978, Journal of dental research.

[44]  T. Peltomäki,et al.  Shape of the craniofacial complex in 45,X females: cephalometric study. , 1989, Journal of craniofacial genetics and developmental biology.

[45]  E. Tammisalo,et al.  Enamel thickness in 47,XYY males' permanent teeth. , 1985, Annals of human biology.

[46]  G. Townsend,et al.  Tooth crown size in 46, X, i (Xq) human females. , 1991, Archives of oral biology.

[47]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Occlusal anomalies in 45,X/46,XX- and 46,Xi(Xq)-women (Turner syndrome). , 1989, Scandinavian journal of dental research.

[48]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Dental morphology of 45,XO human females: molar cusp area, volume, shape and linear measurements. , 1992, Archives of oral biology.

[49]  Patricia Smith,et al.  Crown components of mandibular molar teeth in 45,X females (Turner syndrome). , 2000, Archives of oral biology.

[50]  R. SELMER-OLSEN.  An odontometrical study on the Norwegian Lapps , 1949 .

[51]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  A study in 47,XYY men of the expression of sex-chromosome anomalies in dental occlusion. , 1992, Archives of oral biology.

[52]  David C. Taylor,et al.  Gender differences: their ontogeny and significance , 1972 .

[53]  M. Midtbø,et al.  Skeletal maturity, dental maturity, and eruption in young patients with Turner syndrome. , 1992, Acta odontologica Scandinavica.

[54]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Palatal and mandibular arch morphology in 47,XYY men and in other sex-chromosome anomalies. , 1993, Archives of oral biology.

[55]  S. Garn,et al.  X-linked Inheritance of Tooth Size , 1965, Journal of dental research.

[56]  G. Townsend,et al.  The size of permanent teeth in Klinefelter (47,XXY) syndrome in man. , 1985, Archives of oral biology.

[57]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Sizes of Deciduous Teeth in 45,X Females , 1980, Journal of dental research.

[58]  M. Midtbø,et al.  Occlusal morphology in Turner syndrome. , 1996, European journal of orthodontics.

[59]  G. Townsend,et al.  Craniofacial patterning in Klinefelter (47 XXY) adults. , 1993, European journal of orthodontics.

[60]  T. Mohandas,et al.  Human and mouse amelogenin gene loci are on the sex chromosomes. , 1989, Genomics.

[61]  L. Penrose.  Medical significance of finger-prints and related phenomena. , 1968, British medical journal.

[62]  E. Tammisalo,et al.  47,XXX females, sex chromosomes, and tooth crown structure , 1987, Human Genetics.

[63]  O. Takenaka,et al.  A human X-Y homologous region encodes "amelogenin". , 1991, Genomics.

[64]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Root growth in the teeth of 46,XY females. , 2005, Archives of oral biology.

[65]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  The craniofacial complex in 47, XXX females. , 2005, European journal of orthodontics.

[66]  L. Alvesalo,et al.  Root lengths in the permanent teeth of Klinefelter (47,XXY) men. , 2007, Archives of oral biology.

[67]  A. Chapelle,et al.  Tooth sizes in two males with deletions of the long arm of the Y‐chromosome , 1981, Annals of human genetics.