Interactivity and Cartography: A Contemporary Perspective on User Interface and User Experience Design from Geospatial Professionals

This article reports on a semi-structured interview study with 21 geospatial professionals to provide a contemporary snapshot of expert opinion on the design and use of interactive maps and map-based systems (treated together as “cartographic interfaces”). Interview questions were based on key themes regarding interaction discussed within cartography and across the related fields of human-computer interaction, information visualization, usability engineering, and visual analytics, enabling a comparison of the current states of science and practice regarding user interface (UI) and user experience (UX) design in cartography. The results are organized according to five broad topics germane to UI/UX design in cartography: (1) the meaning of cartographic interaction in both research and practice (what?), (2) the purpose of cartographic interaction and the value it provides (why?), (3) the times when interaction positively supports work/play and therefore should be provided (when?), (4) the way in which user differences impact the success of the cartographic interaction (who?), and (5) the opportunities for or limitations on cartographic interaction imposed by the computing device supporting the interaction (where?). The interview study is significant for two reasons: first, it charts current trends in interactive mapping from the perspective of expert professionals, a population often missed in quantitative cartographic scholarship, and, second, it enables a reflection on future trends in UI/UX design in cartography, both those resulting from existing gaps between science and practice and those arising from emerging conceptual and technological developments.L’article rend compte d’une étude par entrevues semi-structurées menée auprès de 21 spécialistes de la science géospatiale dans le but de donner un aperçu actuel de l’opinion d’experts sur la conception et l’utilisation de cartes et systèmes cartographiques interactifs (traités ensemble comme étant des « interfaces cartographiques »). Les questions d’entrevue portaient sur des thèmes importants liésà l’interaction dans le domaine de la cartographie et les domaines connexes de l’interaction homme-machine, de la visualisation de l’information, du génie de la convivialité et de l’analyse visuelle, ce qui a permis de comparer les états actuels de la science et de la pratique au sujet de la conception de l’interface utilisateur (IU) et de l’expérience utilisateur (EU) en cartographie. Les résultats sont organisés en fonction de cinq grands sujets pertinents pour la conception de l’IU et de l’EU en cartographie : (1) la signification de l’interaction cartographique dans la recherche et la pratique (quoi?); (2) le but et la valeur de l’interaction cartographique (pourquoi?); (3) les moments où l’interaction soutient de façon positive le travail ou le jeu et devient donc essentielle (quand?); (4) la manière dont les différences relatives aux utilisateurs produisent un effet sur le succès de l’interaction cartographique (qui?); et (5) les possibilités ou les limites de l’interaction cartographique imposées par l’appareil informatique offrant cette interaction (où?). L’étude par entrevues est importante parce qu’elle dégage les tendances actuelles en cartographie interactive à l’aide du point de vue de professionnels, un groupe souvent ignoré dans le cadre de l’apprentissage cartographique quantitatif, et qu’elle favorise une réflexion sur les futures tendances de la conception de l’IU et de l’EU en cartographie, que celles-ci résultent de lacunes existantes entre la science et la pratique ou de nouveaux progrès conceptuels et technologiques.

[1]  Mark Gahegan,et al.  GeoVISTA studio: a codeless visual programming environment for geoscientific data analysis and visualization , 2002 .

[2]  Anthony C. Robinson,et al.  The geoviz toolkit: using component-oriented coordination methods for geographic visualization and analysis , 2011, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[3]  Mark Harrower,et al.  Addressing Map Interface Usability: Learning from the Lakeshore Nature Preserve Interactive Map , 2008 .

[4]  Jason Dykes,et al.  Facilitating Interaction for Geovisualization , 2005 .

[5]  Kenneth Field,et al.  Reasserting Design Relevance in Cartography: Some Concepts , 2012 .

[6]  Mordechai Haklay,et al.  Single user Environments: Desktop to Mobile , 2010 .

[7]  Reginald G. Golledge,et al.  Do People Understand Spatial Concepts: The Case of First-Order Primitives , 1992, Spatio-Temporal Reasoning.

[8]  Clare Davies Analysing 'work' in complex system tasks: An exploratory study with GIS , 1998, Behav. Inf. Technol..

[9]  John M. Carroll,et al.  Designing Interaction: Psychology at the Human-Computer Interface , 1991 .

[10]  Mark Harrower,et al.  Designing Better Map Interfaces: A Framework for Panning and Zooming , 2005, Trans. GIS.

[11]  Daniel R. Montello,et al.  Cognitive Map-Design Research in the Twentieth Century: Theoretical and Empirical Approaches , 2002 .

[12]  M. Goodchild,et al.  Crowdsourcing Geographic Knowledge: Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) in Theory and Practice , 2012 .

[13]  Anthony C. Robinson,et al.  Collaborative synthesis of visual analytic results , 2008, 2008 IEEE Symposium on Visual Analytics Science and Technology.

[14]  J. Preece,et al.  User-Centered Design , 2004 .

[15]  Andrew U. Frank,et al.  Theories and Methods of Spatio-Temporal Reasoning in Geographic Space , 1992, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[16]  A. Koláčný Cartographic Information—a Fundamental Concept and Term in Modern Cartography , 1969 .

[17]  Michael Wood,et al.  Some Personal Reflections on Change ... The Past and Future of Cartography , 2003 .

[18]  M. Patton,et al.  Qualitative evaluation and research methods , 1992 .

[19]  Ben Shneiderman,et al.  New Approaches to Help Users Get Started with Visual Interfaces: Multi-Layered Interfaces and Integrated Initial Guidance , 2003, DG.O.

[20]  R. Roth The Impact of User Expertise on Geographic Risk Assessment under Uncertain Conditions , 2009 .

[21]  John W. Tukey,et al.  We Need Both Exploratory and Confirmatory , 1980 .

[22]  I. Dey Qualitative Data Analysis: A User Friendly Guide for Social Scientists , 1993 .

[23]  Tumasch Reichenbacher,et al.  Adaptive Methods for Mobile Cartography , 2003 .

[24]  Holger Kessler,et al.  Maps to models , 2004 .

[25]  Daniel C. Cliburn,et al.  Evaluating the Usability of a Tool for Visualizing the Uncertainty of the Future Global Water Balance , 2003 .

[26]  Deborah Hix,et al.  User-Centered Design and Evaluation of Virtual Environments , 1999, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[27]  Daniel A. Keim,et al.  Information Visualization and Visual Data Mining , 2002, IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph..

[28]  Ian Muehlenhaus,et al.  Going Viral: The Look of Online Persuasive Maps , 2014, Cartogr. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Geovisualization.

[29]  Nahum Gershon,et al.  What storytelling can do for information visualization , 2001, Commun. ACM.

[30]  Donald A. Norman,et al.  Emotional design , 2004, UBIQ.

[31]  Robert E. Roth,et al.  Cartographic Interaction Primitives: Framework and Synthesis , 2012 .

[32]  Francis Harvey,et al.  To Volunteer or to Contribute Locational Information? Towards Truth in Labeling for Crowdsourced Geographic Information , 2013 .

[33]  Alan M. MacEachren,et al.  Exploratory cartographic visualization: advancing the agenda , 1997 .

[34]  Carl M. Sack,et al.  Mapmaking for Change: Online Participatory Mapping Tools for Revealing Landscape Values in the Bad River Watershed , 2013 .

[35]  Michel Beaudouin-Lafon,et al.  Designing interaction, not interfaces , 2004, AVI.

[36]  Alberto Cairo,et al.  The Functional Art: An introduction to information graphics and visualization , 2012 .

[37]  William Ribarsky,et al.  Comparing different levels of interaction constraints for deriving visual problem isomorphs , 2010, 2010 IEEE Symposium on Visual Analytics Science and Technology.

[38]  Colin Potts,et al.  Design of Everyday Things , 1988 .

[39]  David Medyckyj-Scott,et al.  Human Factors in Geographical Information Systems , 1994 .

[40]  Mordechai Haklay Interacting with geospatial technologies , 2010 .

[41]  Marc Hassenzahl,et al.  User experience - a research agenda , 2006, Behav. Inf. Technol..

[42]  Daniel R. Montello,et al.  Spatial Reasoning With External Visualizations: What Matters Is What You See, Not Whether You Interact , 2008, Cogn. Sci..

[43]  Ben Shneiderman,et al.  Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction , 1998 .

[44]  Alan M. MacEachren,et al.  User-Centered Design for Interactive Maps: A Case Study in Crime Analysis , 2015, ISPRS Int. J. Geo Inf..

[45]  Chris Weaver Building Highly-Coordinated Visualizations in Improvise , 2004 .

[46]  Jin Chen,et al.  Combining Usability Techniques to Design Geovisualization Tools for Epidemiology , 2005, Cartography and geographic information science.

[47]  A. Turner,et al.  Introduction to neogeography , 2006 .

[48]  Ben Shneiderman,et al.  Which Comes First, Utility or Usability? , 2003, IEEE Visualization.

[49]  Andreas Buja,et al.  XGobi: Interactive Dynamic Data Visualization in the X Window System , 1998 .

[50]  Mark Gahegan,et al.  Visual Semiotics & Uncertainty Visualization: An Empirical Study , 2012, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[51]  A. Kobsa,et al.  Which comes first, usability or utility? , 2003, IEEE Visualization, 2003. VIS 2003..

[52]  Robert E. Roth,et al.  A Qualitative Approach to Understanding the Role of Geographic Information Uncertainty during Decision Making , 2009 .

[53]  Anthony C. Robinson,et al.  Needs Assessment for the Design of Information Synthesis Visual Analytics Tools , 2009, 2009 13th International Conference Information Visualisation.

[54]  William E. Cartwright Extending the map metaphor using web delivered multimedia , 1999, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[55]  Sven Fuhrmann,et al.  User-centered Design of Collaborative Geovisualization Tools , 2005 .

[56]  Matthew B. Miles,et al.  Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook , 1994 .

[57]  Daniel A. Keim,et al.  Geovisual analytics for spatial decision support: Setting the research agenda , 2007, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[58]  Arthur H. Robinson The Look of Maps: An Examination of Cartographic Design , 1953 .

[59]  S. Elwood Volunteered geographic information: key questions, concepts and methods to guide emerging research and practice , 2008 .

[60]  Peter Haggett,et al.  Models in geography , 1968 .

[61]  John T. Stasko,et al.  The Science of Interaction , 2009, Inf. Vis..

[62]  Jessica Wardlaw,et al.  Principles of Interaction , 2010 .

[63]  Terry A. Slocum,et al.  A Qualitative Evaluation of MapTime, A Program For Exploring Spatiotemporal Point Data , 2004, Cartogr. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Geovisualization.

[64]  Menno-Jan Kraak,et al.  Making useful and useable geovisualization , 2005 .

[65]  Mark Gahegan,et al.  Four barriers to the development of effective exploratory visualisation tools for the geosciences , 1999, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[66]  Alan M. MacEachren,et al.  A PATTERN IDENTIFICATION APPROACH TO CARTOGRAPHIC VISUALIZATION , 1990 .

[67]  A. MacEachren,et al.  Visualization in Modern Cartography: Setting the Agenda , 1994 .

[68]  Rajeev Sharma,et al.  Enabling collaborative geoinformation access and decision‐making through a natural, multimodal interface , 2005, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[69]  Mark Harrower,et al.  Cartography on the Internet: Thoughts and a Preliminary User Survey , 1997 .

[70]  M. Goodchild Citizens as sensors: the world of volunteered geography , 2007 .

[71]  Robert E. Roth,et al.  An Empirically-Derived Taxonomy of Interaction Primitives for Interactive Cartography and Geovisualization , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[72]  Myke Gluck,et al.  Focus groups for design improvement in dynamic cartography , 1994 .

[73]  Jeremy White Multi-touch Interfaces and Map Navigation , 2009 .

[74]  A. MacEachren,et al.  Research Challenges in Geovisualization , 2001, KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information.

[75]  Ian Muehlenhaus Web Cartography: Map Design for Interactive and Mobile Devices , 2013 .

[76]  Matthew W. Wilson Location-Based Services, Conspicuous Mobility, and the Location-Aware Future , 2012 .

[77]  Alexander J. Kent,et al.  Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory? , 2005 .

[78]  Alan M. MacEachren Cartography as an Academic Field: A Lost Opportunity or a New Beginning? , 2013 .

[79]  Thomas K. Landauer,et al.  Trouble with Computers: Usefulness, Usability, and Productivity , 1996 .

[80]  Ethan Marcotte Responsive Web Design , 2011 .

[81]  Alan M MacEachren,et al.  Informing geospatial toolset design: understanding the process of cancer data exploration and analysis. , 2008, Health & place.

[82]  John T. Stasko,et al.  Toward a Deeper Understanding of the Role of Interaction in Information Visualization , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics.

[83]  Michael F. Goodchild,et al.  Spatial cloud computing: how can the geospatial sciences use and help shape cloud computing? , 2011, Int. J. Digit. Earth.

[84]  Mark Gahegan,et al.  Geovisualization for knowledge construction and decision support , 2004, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[85]  J. Bertrand,et al.  Techniques for Analyzing Focus Group Data , 1992 .

[86]  Kristin A. Cook,et al.  Illuminating the Path: The Research and Development Agenda for Visual Analytics , 2005 .

[87]  Ferjan Ormeling,et al.  An agenda for democratising cartographic visualisation , 2001 .

[88]  Robert E. Roth,et al.  Interactive maps: What we know and what we need to know , 2013, J. Spatial Inf. Sci..

[89]  John Kelly,et al.  Scientific Management, Job Redesign, and Work Performance , 1983 .

[90]  Michael P. Peterson That Interactive Thing You Do , 1998 .

[91]  Mark Monmonier,et al.  Summary Graphics for Integrated Visualization in Dynamic Cartography , 1992 .

[92]  Alan M. MacEachren,et al.  Developing a Geographic Visualization Tool to Support Earth Science Learning , 2000 .

[93]  Alan Cooper,et al.  About Face 3: the essentials of interaction design , 1995 .

[94]  Georg Gartner,et al.  Geospatial Information Visualization User Interface Issues , 2001 .

[95]  Daniel R. Montello,et al.  Sex-Related Differences and Similarities in Geographic and Environmental Spatial Abilities , 1999 .