Parenting in the digital era: Protective and risk parenting styles for traditional bullying and cyberbullying victimization

Abstract This study analyzes the parenting styles that could act as risk or protective factors for bullying and cyberbullying victimization in Spain, considering the predisposition to aggression of the adolescents. The protective or risk effect of parenting styles for adolescents' related behavior such as antisocial behavior, school adjustment, and self-esteem was also analyzed. Study sample was 1109 adolescents aged between 12 and 17 years (49.96%, females, M = 13.88, SD = 1.38). A 4 × 2 × 2 × 2 MANOVA was applied for the outcome variables of bullying victimization (traditional bullying and cyberbullying), antisocial behavior, school adjustment, and self-esteem; with parenting style, predisposition to aggression, sex and age as independent variables. The results confirm and extend emergent research in parenting styles, carried out in Spain and other European and Latin-American countries, showing that indulgent parenting, characterized by the use of reasoning and warmth practices, can act as a protective factor for both traditional bullying and cyberbullying victimization. On the contrary, authoritarian parenting, characterized by the use of physical and verbal coercion and privation practices, would act as a risk factor for cyberbullying and traditional bullying victimization. The protective and risk effects of parenting styles over adolescents' adjustment take place irrespective of the adolescents' predisposition to aggression.

[1]  R. Shavelson,et al.  Self-Concept: Validation of Construct Interpretations , 1976 .

[2]  D. Baumrind,et al.  Rearing competent children. , 1989 .

[3]  José Fernando García Pérez,et al.  POTENCIA ESTADÍSTICA DEL DISEÑO DE SOLOMON , 1999 .

[4]  R. Tremblay,et al.  Do Early Difficult Temperament and Harsh Parenting Differentially Predict Reactive and Proactive Aggression? , 2006, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[5]  Mylien T. Duong,et al.  Associations between Maternal Physical Discipline and Peer Victimization among Hong Kong Chinese Children: The Moderating Role of Child Aggression , 2009, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[6]  L. Steinberg,et al.  Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. , 1991, Child development.

[7]  J. Reeve,et al.  When Adolescents with High Self-Concept Lose their Engagement in School , 2015 .

[8]  S. Murgui,et al.  Diseño y análisis de la potencia: n y los intervalos de confianza de las medias , 2008 .

[9]  Catherine P. Bradshaw,et al.  Equity, Connection, and Engagement in the School Context to Promote Positive Youth Development , 2014 .

[10]  Óscar F. García,et al.  English Validation of the Parental Socialization Scale—ESPA29 , 2017, Front. Psychol..

[11]  J. Grusec,et al.  Perspectives on parent discipline and child outcomes , 2017 .

[12]  Ramani S. Pilla,et al.  Bullying Behaviors Among US Youth: Prevalence and Association With Psychosocial Adjustment , 2001 .

[13]  F. Cerezo,et al.  Adolescents and Preadolescents' Roles on Bullying, and Its Relation with Social Climate and Parenting Styles // Roles en bullying de adolescentes y preadolescentes, y su relación con el clima social y los estilos educativos parentales , 2014 .

[14]  E. Gracia,et al.  Validation of the English version of the Five-Factor Self-Concept Questionnaire. , 2013, Psicothema.

[15]  B. Barber.  Parental Behaviors and Adolescent Self-Esteem in the United States and Germany. , 1992 .

[16]  Edgar Erdfelder,et al.  GPOWER: A general power analysis program , 1996 .

[17]  G. Musitu,et al.  Family Socialization Practices: Factor Confirmation of the Portuguese Version of a Scale for their Measurement // Las prácticas de socialización familiar: confirmación factorial de la versión portuguesa de una escala para su medida , 2011 .

[18]  M. O'moore,et al.  Self‐esteem and its relationship to bullying behaviour , 2001 .

[19]  D. Laible,et al.  Dimensions of Conscience in Mid-adolescence: Links with Social Behavior, Parenting, and Temperament , 2008 .

[20]  Cyberbullying and Students Engagement in School: A Literature Review , 2014 .

[21]  E. Gracia,et al.  PERCEIVED NEIGHBORHOOD VIOLENCE, PARENTING STYLES, AND DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES AMONG SPANISH ADOLESCENTS , 2012 .

[22]  Amador Calafat,et al.  Which parenting style is more protective against adolescent substance use? Evidence within the European context. , 2014, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[23]  Izabela Zych,et al.  Social and Emotional Competencies in Adolescents Involved in Different Bullying and Cyberbullying Roles , 2018, Revista de Psicodidáctica (English ed.).

[24]  H. Cogo-Moreira,et al.  Gradient of association between parenting styles and patterns of drug use in adolescence: A latent class analysis. , 2017, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[25]  R. Berns.  Child, Family, School, Community: Socialization and Support , 1989 .

[26]  Paula Elosua Olidén,et al.  Adaptation of the ESPA29 Parental Socialization Styles Scale to the Basque Language: Evidence of Validity , 2009, The Spanish journal of psychology.

[27]  José Fernando García,et al.  Internalization of values and self-esteem among Brazilian teenagers from authoritative, indulgent, authoritarian, and neglectful homes. , 2008, Adolescence.

[28]  M. C. Fuentes,et al.  El estilo de socialización familiar como factor de prevención o riesgo para el consumo de sustancias y otros problemas de conducta en los adolescentes españoles , 2013 .

[29]  Enrique Gracia,et al.  Consumo de alcohol, tabaco, cannabis y otras drogas en la adolescencia: efectos de la familia y peligro del barrio , 2015 .

[30]  R. Di Maggio,et al.  Mothering, Fathering, and Italian Adolescents’ Problem Behaviors and Life Satisfaction: Dimensional and Typological Approach , 2014 .

[31]  Enrique Gracia,et al.  ¿Qué estilo de socialización parental es el idóneo en España? Un estudio con niños y adolescentes de 10 a 14 años , 2010 .

[32]  Douglas D. Perkins,et al.  Bullying in school and adolescent sense of empowerment: an analysis of relationships with parents, friends, and teachers , 2008 .

[33]  Heidi Vandebosch,et al.  Cyberbullying among youngsters: profiles of bullies and victims , 2009, New Media Soc..

[34]  Susanne Hempel,et al.  Perceived Parenting Styles, Depersonalisation, Anxiety and Coping Behaviour in Adolescents , 2003 .

[35]  E. Flouri,et al.  The role of father involvement in children's later mental health. , 2003, Journal of adolescence.

[36]  G. Flores,et al.  Parental characteristics associated with bullying perpetration in US children aged 10 to 17 years. , 2012, American journal of public health.

[37]  S. Gavazzi.  Theory and Research Pertaining to Families with Adolescents , 2013 .

[38]  G. Musitu,et al.  A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the “Autoconcepto Forma 5” Questionnaire in Young Adults from Spain and Chile , 2011, The Spanish journal of psychology.

[39]  L. Arseneault,et al.  Predictive validity and early predictors of peer-victimization trajectories in preschool. , 2008, Archives of general psychiatry.

[40]  M. Rosenberg.  Conceiving the self , 1979 .

[41]  Hyunah Kang,et al.  Developmental outcomes among Korean adolescents in out-of-home care: A longitudinal study comparing kinship foster care and institutional care , 2017 .

[42]  E. Maccoby,et al.  Socialization In The Context Of The Family: Parent-Child Interaction , 1983 .

[43]  Albert J. Cotugno,et al.  Social Competence and Social Skills Training and Intervention for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders , 2009, Journal of autism and developmental disorders.

[44]  Patricia Romero Sánchez,et al.  Estilos parentales y desarrollo psicosocial en estudiantes de bachillerato , 2004 .

[45]  G. Ladd,et al.  Parenting Behaviors and Parent-Child Relationships: Correlates of Peer Victimization. , 1998 .

[46]  M. Garaigordobil.  Conducta antisocial: conexión con bullying/cyberbullying y estrategias de resolución de conflictos , 2017 .

[47]  Ruth K. Chao,et al.  Extending research on the consequences of parenting style for Chinese Americans and European Americans. , 2001, Child development.

[48]  P. Symonds.  The psychology of parent-child relationships , 1940 .

[49]  Justin W. Patchin,et al.  Cyberbullying and self-esteem. , 2010, The Journal of school health.

[50]  M. Seto,et al.  Sexual aggression as antisocial behavior: A developmental model. , 1997 .

[51]  D. Farrington,et al.  Bullies and delinquents: personal characteristics and parental styles , 2000 .

[52]  Gary W. Ladd,et al.  The Teacher-Child Relationship and Children's Early School Adjustment , 1997 .

[53]  N. Darling,et al.  Parenting Style as Context: An Integrative Model , 1993 .

[54]  José Fernando García,et al.  Impact of Parenting Styles on Adolescents' Self-Esteem and Internalization of Values in Spain , 2007, The Spanish Journal of Psychology.

[55]  Gustavo S. Mesch.  Parental Mediation, Online Activities, and Cyberbullying , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[56]  Rosario Ortega-Ruiz,et al.  Competencias sociales y emocionales de adolescentes involucrados en diferentes roles de bullying y cyberbullying , 2018, Revista de Psicodidáctica.

[57]  B. Leventhal,et al.  Prevention of bullying-related morbidity and mortality: a call for public health policies. , 2010, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[58]  M. Furlong,et al.  Development of the California school climate and safety survey-short form , 2005 .

[59]  F. Petermann†,et al.  Psychosoziale Risiko- und Schutzfaktoren bei Kindern und Jugendlichen mit Gewalterfahrungen , 2009 .

[60]  H. Levin,et al.  Patterns of child rearing , 1957 .

[61]  F. Veiga,et al.  Parenting and adolescents' self-esteem: the Portuguese context , 2013 .

[62]  Ora Simcha Fagan.  Violent and Antisocial Behavior: A Longitudinal Study of Urban Youth. , 1975 .

[63]  D. Olweus.  School bullying: development and some important challenges. , 2013, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[64]  A. Baldwin.  Behavior and development in childhood , 1955 .

[65]  Catherine P. Bradshaw,et al.  A Multilevel Perspective on the Climate of Bullying: Discrepancies Among Students, School Staff, and Parents , 2011, Journal of school violence.

[66]  Kellie Carlyle,et al.  Demographic differences in the prevalence, co-occurrence, and correlates of adolescent bullying at school. , 2007, The Journal of school health.

[67]  Stacy Horner,et al.  The impact and response to electronic bullying and traditional bullying among adolescents , 2015, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[68]  A. Buss,et al.  The aggression questionnaire. , 1992, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[69]  R. Baumeister,et al.  The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory , 2000 .

[70]  Ángel Hernández García,et al.  Autoconcepto en jóvenes practicantes de danza y no practicantes: Análisis factorial confirmatorio de la escala AF5 , 2012 .

[71]  J. Espino.  Two sides of intensive parenting: Present and future dimensions in contemporary relations between parents and children in Spain , 2013 .

[72]  José Fernando Garcia,et al.  Socialização parental: adaptação ao Brasil da escala ESPA29 , 2011 .

[73]  N. Darling,et al.  Over-time changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. , 1994, Child development.

[74]  Enrique Gracia,et al.  Los estilos parentales de socialización y el ajuste psicológico. Un estudio con adolescentes españoles , 2014 .

[75]  E. Gracia,et al.  Parental Socialization Styles and Psychological Adjustment. A Study in Spanish Adolescents , 2015 .

[76]  Robin M. Kowalski,et al.  Electronic bullying among middle school students. , 2007, The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine.

[77]  A. Bakker,et al.  Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi‐sample study , 2004 .

[78]  Maite Garaigordobil,et al.  Parental Socialization Styles, Parents' Educational Level, and Sexist Attitudes in Adolescence , 2012, The Spanish journal of psychology.

[79]  E. Gracia,et al.  Is always authoritative the optimum parenting style? Evidence from Spanish families. , 2009, Adolescence.

[80]  Xitao Fan,et al.  Supportive school climate and student willingness to seek help for bullying and threats of violence. , 2010, Journal of school psychology.

[81]  E. Schaefer,et al.  A circumplex model for maternal behavior. , 1959, Journal of abnormal and social psychology.

[82]  René Veenstra,et al.  Prevalence of bullying and victimization among children in early elementary school: Do family and school neighbourhood socioeconomic status matter? , 2012, BMC Public Health.

[83]  A. D. de Winter,et al.  Bullying and victimization in elementary schools: a comparison of bullies, victims, bully/victims, and uninvolved preadolescents. , 2005, Developmental psychology.

[84]  Ingeborg Lund,et al.  15-year-old tobacco and alcohol abstainers in a drier generation: Characteristics and lifestyle factors in a Norwegian cross-sectional sample , 2019, Scandinavian journal of public health.

[85]  M. Spencer.  Social and cultural influences on school adjustment: The application of an identity-focused.. , 1999 .

[86]  E. Tezer,et al.  Parenting styles and learned resourcefulness of Turkish adolescents. , 2008, Adolescence.