Estimating the risk of driving under the influence of psychoactive substances

Rijden onder invloed is een van de belangrijkste oorzaken van dodelijke verkeersongevallen, en alcohol is hierbij de gevaarlijkste stof in het verkeer. Drugs en geneesmiddelen zijn ook gevaarlijk, doorgaans vergelijkbaar met een alcohol-promillage van 0,5-0,8 promille. Combinatiegebruik van verschillende stoffen leidt tot nog hogere risico’s. In de afgelopen decennia is er veel onderzoek uitgevoerd naar het risico van rijden onder invloed van alcohol. Naar het risico van rijden onder invloed van andere psychoactieve stoffen dan alcohol is echter minder onderzoek gedaan. Sommige onderzoekers beschouwen case-controlstudies als de beste manier om het risico van rijden onder invloed van psychoactieve stoffen te onderzoeken. Een belangrijk nadeel van dit soort studies is echter dat ze kostbaar zijn en moeilijk zijn uit te voeren; er zijn daarom niet veel van deze studies gedaan. Van de weinige case-controlstudies die wel op dit gebied zijn uitgevoerd, wijken de uitkomsten bovendien behoorlijk van elkaar af. In dit promotieonderzoek is onderzocht waarom de uitkomsten zo verschillen en of de bestaande onderzoeksrichtlijnen voor case-controlstudies hier een oplossing voor kunnen bieden. Met behulp van deze kennis kan het risico van rijden onder invloed van psychoactieve stoffen beter worden ingeschat.

[1]  E Desapriya,et al.  Severity of alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes in British Columbia: case – control study , 2006, International journal of injury control and safety promotion.

[2]  E. B. Wilson.  Probable Inference, the Law of Succession, and Statistical Inference , 1927 .

[3]  M C Longo,et al.  The prevalence of alcohol, cannabinoids, benzodiazepines and stimulants amongst injured drivers and their role in driver culpability: part ii: the relationship between drug prevalence and drug concentration, and driver culpability. , 2000, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[4]  A. Verstraete,et al.  External quality assessment of multi-analyte chromatographic methods in oral fluid. , 2010, Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry.

[5]  D. Crouch.  Oral fluid collection: the neglected variable in oral fluid testing. , 2005, Forensic science international.

[6]  L. de Jong-van den Berg,et al.  A comparison of pharmacoepidemiological study designs in medication use and traffic safety research , 2012, European Journal of Epidemiology.

[7]  Allan F. Williams,et al.  Role of Cannabis and Benzodiazepines in Motor Vehicle Crashes , 2006 .

[8]  Paul Montgomery,et al.  Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs , 2011 .

[9]  J. Verster,et al.  Appendix II International Council on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety. Guidelines on experimental studies undertaken to determine a medicinal drug’s effect on driving or skills related to driving , 2009 .

[10]  Jennifer L. Kelsey,et al.  Methods in Observational Epidemiology , 1986 .

[11]  P. Lillsunde,et al.  Drug testing in oral fluid-evaluation of sample collection devices. , 2008, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[12]  M Brault,et al.  The Contribution of Alcohol and Other Drugs Among Fatally Injured Drivers in Quebec: Final Results , 2004 .

[13]  J D States,et al.  Abbreviated injury scale unification: the case for a unified injury system for global use. , 1999, The Journal of trauma.

[14]  K. A. BROOKHUIS,et al.  Criteria for driver impairment , 2003, Ergonomics.

[15]  Brian Tefft.  The Prevalence and Impact of Drowsy Driving , 2010 .

[16]  R. MacCoun.  What can we learn from the Dutch cannabis coffeeshop system? , 2011, Addiction.

[17]  W. R. Nelson,et al.  The relative influence of alcohol and seatbelt usage on severity of injury from motor vehicle crashes. , 1992, The Journal of trauma.

[18]  S. Toennes,et al.  Assay of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in oral fluid-evaluation of the OraSure oral specimen collection device. , 2006, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[19]  Toru Nakamura.  WHITE PAPER, European transport policy for 2010 : time to decide , 2004 .

[20]  M. Woodward,et al.  Marijuana use and car crash injury. , 2005, Addiction.

[21]  A. Verstraete,et al.  Comparison of the drug concentrations in oral fluid collected by two sampling methods (Varian OraLab and Statsure Saliva•Sampler) , 2011 .

[22]  J. Ramaekers,et al.  Dose related risk of motor vehicle crashes after cannabis use. , 2004, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[23]  C. Moore,et al.  Cannabinoids in oral fluid following passive exposure to marijuana smoke. , 2011, Forensic science international.

[24]  J. Ahlner,et al.  Stability tests of zopiclone in whole blood. , 2010, Forensic science international.

[25]  D. Altman,et al.  STATISTICAL METHODS FOR ASSESSING AGREEMENT BETWEEN TWO METHODS OF CLINICAL MEASUREMENT , 1986, The Lancet.

[26]  Samy Suissa,et al.  Benzodiazepines and elderly drivers: a comparison of pharmacoepidemiological study designs , 2007, Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety.

[27]  W. Mantovani,et al.  Prevalence of alcohol and drugs in urine of patients involved in road accidents. , 2008, Journal of preventive medicine and hygiene.

[28]  P. Lillsunde,et al.  Drugs and driving: the Finnish perspective. , 2005, Bulletin on narcotics.

[29]  Paul Griffiths,et al.  Drug Use, Impaired Driving and Traffic Accidents , 2008 .

[30]  Atze Dijkstra,et al.  En Route to Safer Roads. How Road Structure and Road Classification Can Affect Road Safety , 2011 .

[31]  M Cameron,et al.  World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention. , 2004 .

[32]  Dan J Stein,et al.  Toward a Global View of Alcohol, Tobacco, Cannabis, and Cocaine Use: Findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys , 2008, PLoS medicine.

[33]  F. Zitman,et al.  Who uses over-the-counter psychotropics? Characteristics, functioning, and (mental) health profile. , 2000, General hospital psychiatry.

[34]  S Houwing,et al.  The prevalence of drug driving and relative risk estimations: a study conducted in the Netherlands, Norway and United Kingdom , 2005 .

[35]  M. Graffar.  [Modern epidemiology]. , 1971, Bruxelles medical.

[36]  P. Lachenbruch.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.) , 1989 .

[37]  E. Kelly,et al.  A review of drug use and driving: epidemiology, impairment, risk factors and risk perceptions. , 2004, Drug and alcohol review.

[38]  M Vollrath,et al.  The alcohol-related accident risk in Germany: procedure, methods and results. , 2004, Accident Analysis and Prevention.

[39]  L. de Jong-van den Berg,et al.  Road traffic accidents and psychotropic medication use in The Netherlands: a case-control study. , 2011, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[40]  W. Shadish,et al.  Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference , 2001 .

[41]  G. Skopp,et al.  Comparison of drug analysis in whole blood and dried blood spots , 2011 .

[42]  Ragnhild Johanna Davidse,et al.  Assisting the older driver: intersection design and in-car devices to improve the safety of the older driver , 2007 .

[43]  J. Palmentier,et al.  Alcohol and drugs in suspected impaired drivers in Ontario from 2001 to 2005. , 2009, Journal of forensic and legal medicine.

[44]  J. R. Landis,et al.  The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. , 1977, Biometrics.

[45]  Marjan Hagenzieker,et al.  Risk of injury by driving with alcohol and other drugs , 2011 .

[46]  A. Smiley,et al.  Developing limits for driving under cannabis. , 2007, Addiction.

[47]  L Li,et al.  Personal and behavioral predictors of automobile crash and injury severity. , 1995, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[48]  A. Verstraete,et al.  Detection Times of Drugs of Abuse in Blood, Urine, and Oral Fluid , 2004, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[49]  S. Toennes,et al.  Screening for drugs of abuse in oral fluid--correlation of analysis results with serum in forensic cases. , 2005, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[50]  Olaf H. Drummer,et al.  Epidemiology and traffic safety: culpability studies , 2009 .

[51]  E. Cone,et al.  Passive cannabis smoke exposure and oral fluid testing. II. Two studies of extreme cannabis smoke exposure in a motor vehicle. , 2005, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[52]  J K McLaughlin,et al.  Selection of controls in case-control studies. I. Principles. , 1992, American journal of epidemiology.

[53]  L. Rodrigo,et al.  CD8dim and NKG2D Expression Defines Related Subsets of CD4+ T cells in HIV-Infected Patients With Worse Prognostic Factors , 2009, Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes.

[54]  K. Schulz,et al.  Case-control studies: research in reverse , 2002, The Lancet.

[55]  Karel A. Brookhuis,et al.  Effects of MDMA (ecstasy), and multiple drugs use on (simulated) driving performance and traffic safety , 2004, Psychopharmacology.

[56]  J. Mørland,et al.  Impairment based legislative limits for driving under the influence of non-alcohol drugs in Norway. , 2012, Forensic science international.

[57]  J. Mørland,et al.  Prevalence of alcohol and other substances of abuse among injured patients in a Norwegian emergency department. , 2011, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[58]  P. Swann,et al.  The involvement of drugs in drivers of motor vehicles killed in Australian road traffic crashes. , 2004, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[59]  Debra T. Silverman,et al.  Selection of controls in case-control studies. II. Types of controls. , 1992, American journal of epidemiology.

[60]  J. G. Perry,et al.  DRUGS AND DRIVING , 1980 .

[61]  C. Bax,et al.  Processes and patterns : the utilization of knowledge in Dutch road safety policy , 2011 .

[62]  Margaret M. Peden,et al.  World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention , 2004 .

[63]  Thomas A Gennarelli,et al.  AIS 2005: a contemporary injury scale. , 2006, Injury.

[64]  Robert B. Voas,et al.  2007 National Roadside Survey of Alcohol and Drug Use by Drivers: Alcohol Results , 2009 .

[65]  Walter Sturm,et al.  First nationwide study on driving under the influence of drugs in Switzerland. , 2010, Forensic science international.

[66]  A. Verstraete,et al.  Drugs and Driving , 2004, Traffic injury prevention.

[67]  Narelle L. Haworth,et al.  Estimation of risk factors for fatal single vehicle crashes , 1997 .

[68]  Shanthi Ameratunga,et al.  Risky driving habits and motor vehicle driver injury. , 2005, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[69]  G. De Backer,et al.  Use of benzodiazepine drugs and perceived job stress in a cohort of working men and women in Belgium. Results from the BELSTRESS-study. , 2004, Social science & medicine.

[70]  H. Gjerde,et al.  Comparison of drug concentrations in blood and oral fluid collected with the Intercept sampling device. , 2010, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[71]  F. Aberl.  DRUID - Driving under the influence of drugs, alcohol and medicines. Zusammenfassung und Schlussfolgerungen , 2012 .

[72]  P. Suriyawongpaisal,et al.  Prevalence of psychoactive drug use among drivers in Thailand: a roadside survey. , 2009, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[73]  A. Fotiou,et al.  Economic and cultural correlates of cannabis use among mid-adolescents in 31 countries. , 2006, Addiction.

[74]  J. Cornfield,et al.  A method of estimating comparative rates from clinical data; applications to cancer of the lung, breast, and cervix. , 1951, Journal of the National Cancer Institute.

[75]  T Assum.  The prevalence and relative risk of drink and drug driving in Norway: a case-control study in the Oslo and Bergen areas , 2005 .

[76]  L Li,et al.  Predictors of safety belt use among crash-involved drivers and front seat passengers: adjusting for over-reporting. , 1999, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[77]  I. Higginson,et al.  Experimental and quasi-experimental designs , 2011 .

[78]  O. Drummer.  Introduction and review of collection techniques and applications of drug testing of oral fluid. , 2008, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[79]  S. Houwing,et al.  An analytical evaluation of eight on-site oral fluid drug screening devices using laboratory confirmation results from oral fluid. , 2011, Forensic science international.

[80]  Jacob Cohen.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences , 1969, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Research Design.

[81]  J. Ramaekers,et al.  Pharmacokinetic properties of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in serum and oral fluid. , 2007, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[82]  A. S. Tippetts,et al.  2007 National Roadside Survey of Alcohol and Drug Use by Drivers: Methodology , 2009 .

[83]  D. Kuntz,et al.  Detection of THCA in oral fluid by GC-MS-MS. , 2006, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[84]  W P Vlakveld,et al.  Hazard anticipation of young novice drivers : assessing and enhancing the capabilities of young novice drivers to anticipate latent hazards in road and traffic situations. Thesis Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. , 2011 .

[85]  P. Groenewegen,et al.  Neighbourhood characteristics and use of benzodiazepines in The Netherlands. , 1999, Social science & medicine.

[86]  S de Craen,et al.  The X-factor : a longitudinal study of calibration in young novice drivers. Thesis Delft University of Technology. , 2010 .

[87]  A. Hoes.  Case-control studies. , 1995, The Netherlands journal of medicine.

[88]  Inge Behrensdorff,et al.  Medicinal and illegal drugs among Danish car drivers. , 2003, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[89]  S. Hanneman,et al.  Design, Analysis, and Interpretation of Method‐Comparison Studies , 2008, AACN advanced critical care.

[90]  A. Egberts,et al.  Psychoactive substance use and the risk of motor vehicle accidents. , 2004, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[91]  Richard D. Blomberg,et al.  CRASH RISK OF ALCOHOL IMPAIRED DRIVING , 2002 .

[92]  D. Crouch,et al.  The effects of collection methods on oral fluid codeine concentrations. , 2000, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[93]  H. Gjerde,et al.  The prevalence of alcohol and drugs in sampled oral fluid is related to sample volume. , 2010, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[94]  Olaf H Drummer,et al.  Demands on scientific studies in different fields of forensic medicine and forensic sciences. Traffic medicine--impaired driver: alcohol, drugs, diseases. , 2007, Forensic science international.

[95]  I. M. Bernhoft,et al.  Prevalence of alcohol and other psychoactive substances in injured and killed drivers , 2011 .

[96]  B. Simons-Morton,et al.  Decrease in adolescent cannabis use from 2002 to 2006 and links to evenings out with friends in 31 European and North American countries and regions. , 2009, Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine.

[97]  D. Kelly,et al.  Oral fluid and plasma cannabinoid ratios after around-the-clock controlled oral Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol administration. , 2011, Clinical chemistry.

[98]  Sunanda Dissanayake,et al.  Factors influential in making an injury severity difference to older drivers involved in fixed object-passenger car crashes. , 2002, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[99]  Doug Beirness,et al.  Drugs and Driving: Detection and Deterrence , 2010 .

[100]  M. Morgan.  Recreational Use of “Ecstasy” (MDMA) Is Associated with Elevated Impulsivity , 1998, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[101]  Karel Brookhuis,et al.  Driving under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines , 2008 .

[102]  I Van Schagen,et al.  The uses of exposure and risk in road safety studies , 2002 .

[103]  Marilyn A Huestis,et al.  Relationship of Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol concentrations in oral fluid and plasma after controlled administration of smoked cannabis. , 2004, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[104]  Jolieke Mesken,et al.  Determinants and consequences of drivers' emotions , 2006 .

[105]  H. Morgenstern,et al.  Epidemiologic Research: Principles and Quantitative Methods. , 1983 .

[106]  J F O'Hanlon,et al.  Methodological guidelines for experimental research on medicinal drugs affecting driving performance: An international expert survey , 1994 .

[107]  Jennie Connor,et al.  The Contribution of Alcohol to Serious Car Crash Injuries , 2004, Epidemiology.

[108]  I. M. Bernhoft,et al.  Uniform design and protocols for carrying out case-control studies , 2007 .

[109]  Matthew Robert Justin Baldock,et al.  Review of the Literature on Cannabis and Crash Risk , 2007 .

[110]  Terje Assum,et al.  Prevalence of alcohol and drugs among Norwegian motor vehicle drivers: a roadside survey. , 2008, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[111]  B Ludes,et al.  Comparison of the prevalence of alcohol, cannabis and other drugs between 900 injured drivers and 900 control subjects: results of a French collaborative study. , 2003, Forensic science international.

[112]  A. Verstraete,et al.  Per se limits: methods of defining cut-off values for zero tolerance , 2011 .

[113]  A. Verstraete,et al.  Guidelines for research on drugged driving. , 2008, Addiction.

[114]  P. van Damme,et al.  Drugs of abuse and alcohol in weekend drivers involved in car crashes in Belgium. , 1998, Annals of emergency medicine.

[115]  D. Kelly,et al.  Disposition of cannabinoids in oral fluid after controlled around-the-clock oral THC administration. , 2010, Clinical chemistry.

[116]  G R Howe,et al.  Methodological issues in case-control studies: validity and power of various design/analysis strategies. , 1983, International journal of epidemiology.

[117]  A. Verstraete,et al.  Analytical evaluation of a rapid on-site oral fluid drug test , 2010, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[118]  A. Agresti.  An introduction to categorical data analysis , 1997 .

[119]  Marilyn A Huestis,et al.  Oral fluid testing for drugs of abuse. , 2009, Clinical chemistry.

[120]  E. Cone,et al.  Detection of marijuana use by oral fluid and urine analysis following single-dose administration of smoked and oral marijuana. , 2001, Journal of analytical toxicology.

[121]  J. Shepherd,et al.  THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALCOHOL INTOXICATION, STRESSORS AND INJURY IN URBAN VIOLENCE , 1996 .

[122]  C. Schmidt,et al.  When to use the odds ratio or the relative risk? , 2008, International Journal of Public Health.

[123]  A. Verstraete,et al.  Relationship Between Oral Fluid and Blood Concentrations of Drugs of Abuse in Drivers Suspected of Driving Under the Influence of Drugs , 2009, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[124]  P. Spinhoven,et al.  SSRIs vs. TCAs in the treatment of panic disorder: a meta‐analysis , 2002, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[125]  Joris C Verster,et al.  Drugs of abuse, driving and traffic safety. , 2010, Current drug abuse reviews.

[126]  C Dussault,et al.  THE CONTRIBUTION OF ALCOHOL AND OTHER DRUGS AMONG FATALLY INJURED DRIVERS IN QUEBEC: SOME PRELIMINARY RESULTS , 2004 .

[127]  A. Egberts,et al.  Drug use and the severity of a traffic accident. , 2005, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[128]  Frits Bijleveld,et al.  Time Series Analysis in Road Safety Research using State Space Methods , 2008 .

[129]  R. F. Borkenstein,et al.  The role of the drinking driver in traffic accidents (the Grand Rapids study) , 1974 .