Determination of personal exposure to traffic pollution while travelling by different modes

This purpose of this project is to assess the comparative risk associated with exposure to traffic pollution when travelling via different transport modes in New Zealand cities. Concentrations of the key traffic-related pollutants (particulate matter: (PM): PM10, PM2.5, PM1; ultrafine particles (UFPs) and carbon monoxide (CO)) were simultaneously monitored on pre-defined routes in Auckland and Christchurch during the morning and evening commute on people travelling by car, bus, on-road bike, train (Auckland only) and off-road bike (Christchurch only) from February to May 2009. The key results of this research are: 1. car drivers are consistently exposed to the highest average levels of CO; 2. on-road cyclists are exposed to higher levels of CO, PM1 and UFPs than off-road cyclists; 3. car drivers and bus passengers are exposed to higher average levels of UFP than cyclists; 4. at some parts of their journeys, travellers are exposed to very high levels of pollution, often for short periods of time; 5. locating cycle paths just a short distance from roads can reduce pollution exposure significantly; 6. one hour of commuting could contribute up to 20 per cent of total daily CO and UFP; 7. PM10 and PM2.5 are inappropriate indicators of exposure to vehicle emissions.

[1]  Mats Gustafsson,et al.  Properties and toxicological effects of particles from the interaction between tyres, road pavement and winter traction material. , 2008, The Science of the total environment.

[2]  Shinji Kumagai,et al.  Interior Air Pollution in Automotive Cabins by Volatile Organic Compounds Diffusing from Interior Materials: II. Influence of Manufacturer, Specifications and Usage Status on Air Pollution, and Estimation of Air Pollution Levels in Initial Phases of Delivery as a New Car , 2006 .

[3]  Mike Ashmore,et al.  Personal exposures to carbon monoxide in the city of Athens: I. Commuters' exposures , 1998 .

[4]  E. Samoli,et al.  Personal carbon monoxide exposure in five European cities and its determinants , 2002 .

[5]  H. Elminir.  Dependence of urban air pollutants on meteorology. , 2005, The Science of the total environment.

[6]  P. Arlien‐Søborg,et al.  Science of the Total Environment , 2018 .

[7]  Thomas A Glass,et al.  The built environment and obesity: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence. , 2010, Health & place.

[8]  L. Gill,et al.  Exposure to hydrocarbon concentrations while commuting or exercising in Dublin. , 2007, Environment international.

[9]  Eva Bernmark,et al.  Bicycle messengers: energy expenditure and exposure to air pollution , 2006, Ergonomics.

[10]  Tran Ngoc Quang,et al.  Commuters’ Exposure to Particulate Matter and Carbon Monoxide in Hanoi, Vietnam , 2008 .

[11]  B. Brunekreef,et al.  Air pollution and health , 2002, The Lancet.

[12]  H. Plaisance,et al.  A case study of personal exposure to nitrogen dioxide using a new high sensitive diffusive sampler. , 2006, The Science of the total environment.

[13]  A Chaloulakou,et al.  Exposure to carbon monoxide in the Athens urban area during commuting. , 2003, The Science of the total environment.

[14]  C. Rissel,et al.  Comparison of air pollution exposure for five commuting modes in Sydney - car, train, bus, bicycle and walking , 2004 .

[15]  Kerrie Mengersen,et al.  Modality in ambient particle size distributions and its potential as a basis for developing air quality regulation , 2008 .

[16]  Stuart Batterman,et al.  Levels and composition of volatile organic compounds on commuting routes in Detroit, Michigan , 2002 .

[17]  I L Gee,et al.  Commuter exposure to respirable particles inside buses and by bicycle. , 1999, The Science of the total environment.

[18]  J. Schwartz,et al.  Health, wealth, and air pollution: advancing theory and methods. , 2003, Environmental health perspectives.

[19]  J. Ruuskanen,et al.  Personal carbon monoxide exposure in Helsinki, Finland , 2005 .

[20]  L. Sheppard,et al.  Long-term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. , 2007, The New England journal of medicine.

[21]  Luc Int Panis,et al.  Exposure assessment of a cyclist to PM10 and ultrafine particles. , 2009, The Science of the total environment.

[22]  L. Morawska,et al.  A simple and inexpensive dilution system for the TSI 3007 condensation particle counter , 2007 .

[23]  A. Verhoeff,et al.  The exposure of cyclists, car drivers and pedestrians to traffic-related air pollutants , 1995, International archives of occupational and environmental health.

[24]  L. Naeher,et al.  A review of traffic-related air pollution exposure assessment studies in the developing world. , 2006, Environment international.

[25]  T. Mackay,et al.  Factors Affecting Asthma Mortality in Scotland , 1992, Scottish Medical Journal.

[26]  D. Bernstein,et al.  Is it traffic type, volume, or distance? Wheezing in infants living near truck and bus traffic. , 2005, The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology.

[27]  Jeffrey A. Siegel,et al.  Characteristics of cabin air quality in school buses in Central Texas , 2008 .

[28]  Simon Kingham,et al.  Health and air pollution in New Zealand: main report , 2007 .

[29]  M. Finkelstein.  Leukemia after exposure to benzene: temporal trends and implications for standards. , 2000, American journal of industrial medicine.

[30]  María Cruz Minguillón,et al.  Seasonal and spatial variations of sources of fine and quasi-ultrafine particulate matter in neighborhoods near the Los Angeles–Long Beach harbor , 2008 .

[31]  Aonghus McNabola,et al.  Relative exposure to fine particulate matter and VOCs between transport microenvironments in Dublin : Personal exposure and uptake , 2008 .

[32]  Kees de Hoogh,et al.  Effects of travel mode on exposures to particulate air pollution. , 2008, Environment international.

[33]  L. Chan,et al.  Commuter exposure to aromatic VOCs in public transportation modes in Hong Kong. , 2003, The Science of the total environment.

[34]  Peter Wåhlin,et al.  Characterisation of traffic-generated particulate matter in Copenhagen , 2006 .

[35]  L W Gill,et al.  A numerical investigation of the impact of low boundary walls on pedestrian exposure to air pollutants in urban street canyons. , 2009, The Science of the total environment.

[36]  Hynek Pikhart,et al.  Risk Factors Indoors and Prevalences of Childhood Respiratory Health in Four Countries in Western and Central Europe , 1998 .

[37]  M J Nieuwenhuijsen,et al.  Determinants of personal exposure to PM2.5, ultrafine particle counts, and CO in a transport microenvironment. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[38]  J. Rank,et al.  Differences in cyclists and car drivers exposure to air pollution from traffic in the city of Copenhagen. , 2001, The Science of the total environment.

[39]  Eduardo Behrentz,et al.  Measuring self-pollution in school buses using a tracer gas technique , 2004 .

[40]  Alfredo Morabia,et al.  Air pollution and activity during transportation by car, subway, and walking. , 2009, American journal of preventive medicine.

[41]  Simon Kingham,et al.  Media Mapping: Using Georeferenced Images and Audio to provide supporting information for the Analysis of Environmental Sensor Datasets , 2009 .

[42]  Ian Longley,et al.  Tools for assessing exposure to land transport emissions , 2011 .

[43]  Leonora Rojas-Bracho,et al.  The impact of a Bus Rapid Transit system on commuters' exposure to Benzene, CO, PM2.5 and PM10 in Mexico City , 2008 .

[44]  Qiusheng He,et al.  Exposure to hazardous volatile organic compounds, PM10 and CO while walking along streets in urban Guangzhou, China , 2004 .

[45]  Lo Yin Chan,et al.  The effect of commuting microenvironment on commuter exposures to vehicular emission in Hong Kong , 1999 .

[46]  E. den Breejen.  Fietsers en verkeersuitstoot : verkenning van de blootstelling van fietsers aan fijn en ultrafijn stof , 2006 .

[47]  M Fergusson,et al.  THE COMPARATIVE POLLUTION EXPOSURE OF ROAD USERS - A SUMMARY , 1998 .

[48]  Gerard Hoek,et al.  Exposure to ultrafine and fine particles and noise during cycling and driving in 11 Dutch cities , 2009 .

[49]  B. Festy,et al.  Exposure of City Residents to Carbon Monoxide and Monocyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons during Commuting Trips in the Paris Metropolitan Area , 1995 .

[50]  Chi Nyon Kim,et al.  Spatial distribution of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) in Seoul Metropolitan Subway stations. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[51]  L. Gill,et al.  Reduced exposure to air pollution on the boardwalk in Dublin, Ireland. Measurement and prediction. , 2008, Environment international.

[52]  K. Bolla.  Neuropsychological assessment for detecting adverse effects of volatile organic compounds on the central nervous system. , 1991, Environmental health perspectives.

[53]  R. Colvile,et al.  Fine particle (PM2.5) personal exposure levels in transport microenvironments, London, UK. , 2001, The Science of the total environment.

[54]  Michael Brauer,et al.  Particulate matter exposure along designated bicycle routes in Vancouver, British Columbia. , 2008, The Science of the total environment.

[55]  R. Shephard,et al.  Carbon monoxide in the urban atmosphere: hazards to the pedestrian and the street-worker. , 1975, Archives of environmental health.

[56]  S. Thorsson,et al.  Carbon Monoxide in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso – A Comparison between Urban Background, Roadside and In-traffic Measurements , 2008 .

[57]  Yukio Yanagisawa,et al.  The commuters’ exposure to volatile chemicals and carcinogenic risk in Mexico City , 2005 .

[58]  Andrea Cattaneo,et al.  Personal exposure to airborne ultrafine particles in the urban area of Milan , 2009 .

[59]  Mutasem El-Fadel,et al.  In-vehicle CO ingression: validation through field measurements and mass balance simulations. , 2008, The Science of the total environment.

[60]  Yu-Hsiang Cheng,et al.  Levels of PM10 and PM2.5 in Taipei Rapid Transit System , 2008 .

[61]  Kerrie Mengersen,et al.  The effect of temperature and humidity on size segregated traffic exhaust particle emissions , 2008 .

[62]  Gina Solomon,et al.  Diesel exhaust and asthma: hypotheses and molecular mechanisms of action. , 2002, Environmental health perspectives.

[63]  L. Wallace,et al.  Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds , 2006 .

[64]  John D. Spengler,et al.  Driver exposure to volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, ozone and nitrogen dioxide under different driving conditions , 1991 .

[65]  Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen,et al.  Assessment of road users’ elemental carbon personal exposure levels, London, UK , 2002 .

[66]  Robert B. Noland,et al.  Simulated pedestrian travel and exposure to vehicle emissions , 2008 .

[67]  Peter F. Nelson,et al.  Exposure to emissions of 1,3-butadiene and benzene in the cabins of moving motor vehicles and buses in Sydney, Australia , 1997 .

[68]  J. Samet,et al.  Indoor air pollution in developing countries and acute lower respiratory infections in children , 2000, Thorax.

[69]  P. Dingle,et al.  Exposure to Nitrogen Dioxide in Buses, Taxis, and Bicycles in Perth, Western Australia , 2001, Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[70]  P. Boffetta,et al.  Cancer risk from occupational and environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , 1997, Cancer Causes & Control.

[71]  David Briggs,et al.  Personal exposure to particulate air pollution in transport microenvironments , 2004 .

[72]  Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen,et al.  Commuters’ exposure to PM2.5, CO, and benzene in public transport in the metropolitan area of Mexico City , 2004 .

[73]  F. Sturmans,et al.  The rate of respiratory symptoms among primary school children in two Dutch regions , 2005, European Journal of Pediatrics.

[74]  Saffa Riffat,et al.  Drivers' exposure to carbon monoxide in Nottingham, U.K. , 1997 .

[75]  Eduardo Behrentz,et al.  Vehicle self-pollution intake fraction: children's exposure to school bus emissions. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[76]  Christer Johansson,et al.  Particulate matter in the underground of Stockholm , 2002 .

[77]  SARI ALM,et al.  Urban commuter exposure to particle matter and carbon monoxide inside an automobile , 1999, Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology.

[78]  Steffen Loft,et al.  Personal Exposure to Ultrafine Particles and Oxidative DNA Damage , 2005, Environmental health perspectives.

[79]  Joel D. Kaufman,et al.  Effects of diesel exhaust inhalation on heart rate variability in human volunteers. , 2008, Environmental research.

[80]  U Keil,et al.  The Association between Self‐Reported Symptoms of Asthma and Allergic Rhinitis and Self‐Reported Traffic Density on Street of Residence in Adolescents , 1996, Epidemiology.

[81]  Chang-Chuan Chan,et al.  Comparisons of commuter's exposure to particulate matters while using different transportation modes. , 2008, The Science of the total environment.

[82]  Dennis Y.C. Leung,et al.  STREET-LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS OF NITROGEN DIOXIDE AND SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER IN HONG KONG , 1998 .

[83]  Steffen Loft,et al.  Linking exposure to environmental pollutants with biological effects. , 2003, Mutation research.

[84]  Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen,et al.  Exposure visualisation of ultrafine particle counts in a transport microenvironment , 2006 .

[85]  S. Zou,et al.  Exposure level of carbon monoxide and respirable suspended particulate in public transportation modes while commuting in urban area of Guangzhou, China , 2002 .

[86]  A. Strömvall,et al.  Exposure of commuters to volatile aromatic hydrocarbons from petrol exhaust. , 1991, The Science of the total environment.

[87]  John W. Cherrie,et al.  Exposure to Ultrafine Particles and PM 2.5 in Different Micro-environments , 2002 .

[88]  Timo Mäkelä,et al.  The concentrations and composition of and exposure to fine particles (PM2.5) in the Helsinki subway system , 2005 .

[89]  C. Henríquez-Roldán,et al.  Long-term Air Pollution Exposure Is Associated with Neuroinflammation, an Altered Innate Immune Response, Disruption of the Blood-Brain Barrier, Ultrafine Particulate Deposition, and Accumulation of Amyloid β-42 and α-Synuclein in Children and Young Adults , 2008, Toxicologic pathology.

[90]  M. Ketzel,et al.  A proper choice of route significantly reduces air pollution exposure--a study on bicycle and bus trips in urban streets. , 2008, The Science of the total environment.

[91]  B. Brunekreef,et al.  The relationship between air pollution from heavy traffic and allergic sensitization, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, and respiratory symptoms in Dutch schoolchildren. , 2003, Environmental health perspectives.

[92]  G. Oberdörster,et al.  Nanotoxicology: An Emerging Discipline Evolving from Studies of Ultrafine Particles , 2005, Environmental health perspectives.