The Body and the Brain: Measuring Skin Conductance Responses to Understand the Emotional Experience

In this article, we introduce the method of measuring skin conductance responses (SCR) reflecting peripheral (bodily) signals associated with emotions, decisions, and eventually behavior. While measuring SCR is a well-established, robust, widely used, and relatively inexpensive method, it has been rarely utilized in organizational research. We introduce the basic aspects of SCR methodology and explain the behavioral significance of the signal, especially in connection with the emotional experience. Importantly, we describe in detail a specific research protocol (fear conditioning) that serves as an illustrative example to support the initial steps for organizational scholars who are new to the method. We also provide the related scripts for stimulus presentation and basic data analysis, as well as an instructional video, with the aim to facilitate the dissemination of SCR methodology to organizational research. We conclude by suggesting potential future research questions that can be addressed using SCR measurements.

[1]  Andreas Keil,et al.  Adaptation in human visual cortex as a mechanism for rapid discrimination of aversive stimuli , 2007, NeuroImage.

[2]  Daniel J Beal,et al.  Affect spin and the emotion regulation process at work. , 2013, The Journal of applied psychology.

[3]  R. Bryant,et al.  Extinction Learning Before Trauma and Subsequent Posttraumatic Stress , 2006, Psychosomatic medicine.

[4]  Karl J. Friston,et al.  Analytic measures for quantification of arousal from spontaneous skin conductance fluctuations , 2010, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[5]  Turning Two Uninvited Guests Into Prominent Speakers: Toward a Dynamic Culture Neuroscience , 2013 .

[6]  John A Updegraff,et al.  Mindfulness and its relationship to emotional regulation. , 2012, Emotion.

[7]  Herta Flor,et al.  Failure of extinction of fear responses in posttraumatic stress disorder: evidence from second-order conditioning. , 2007, The American journal of psychiatry.

[8]  W. Cannon The James-Lange theory of emotions: a critical examination and an alternative theory. By Walter B. Cannon, 1927. , 1927, The American journal of psychology.

[9]  C. Rennie,et al.  Decomposing skin conductance into tonic and phasic components. , 1997, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[10]  Gershon Ben-Shakhar,et al.  Psychophysiologic assessment of aversive conditioning in posttraumatic stress disorder , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[11]  Andreas Keil,et al.  Cross-modal attention capture by affective stimuli: Evidence from event-related potentials , 2007, Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience.

[12]  Ronald K. Mitchell,et al.  Untangling the Intuition Mess: Intuition as a Construct in Entrepreneurship Research , 2005 .

[13]  Elizabeth A. Grice,et al.  The skin microbiome , 2020, Nature.

[14]  G. Graen,et al.  Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective , 1995 .

[15]  A. Keil,et al.  Modulation of the C1 visual event-related component by conditioned stimuli: evidence for sensory plasticity in early affective perception. , 2006, Cerebral cortex.

[16]  P. Ekman,et al.  Autonomic nervous system activity distinguishes among emotions. , 1983, Science.

[17]  B. Bradley,et al.  Fear Extinction in Traumatized Civilians with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Relation to Symptom Severity , 2011, Biological Psychiatry.

[18]  M. Bouton Context, ambiguity, and unlearning: sources of relapse after behavioral extinction , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[19]  P. Venables,et al.  Direct measurement of skin conductance: a proposal for standardization. , 1971, Psychophysiology.

[20]  H. Critchley,et al.  Fear Conditioning in Humans The Influence of Awareness and Autonomic Arousal on Functional Neuroanatomy , 2002, Neuron.

[21]  P Vuilleumier,et al.  Perceived gaze direction in faces and spatial attention: a study in patients with parietal damage and unilateral neglect , 2002, Neuropsychologia.

[22]  M. Gillin,et al.  Non-local intuition and the performance of serial entrepreneurs , 2006 .

[23]  James M. LeBreton,et al.  Predicting counterproductive work behaviors with sub-clinical psychopathy: Beyond the Five Factor Model of personality , 2013 .

[24]  W. Boucsein Electrodermal activity, 2nd ed. , 2012 .

[25]  P. Valleala,et al.  AMYGDALOID AFTERDISCHARGE AND GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE. , 1964, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[26]  Christoph Braun,et al.  Coherence of gamma-band EEG activity as a basis for associative learning , 1999, Nature.

[27]  Ronald F. Piccolo,et al.  A META‐ANALYSIS OF TEAMWORK PROCESSES: TESTS OF A MULTIDIMENSIONAL MODEL AND RELATIONSHIPS WITH TEAM EFFECTIVENESS CRITERIA , 2008 .

[28]  I. Engelhard,et al.  Susceptibility to long-term misinformation effect outside of the laboratory , 2013, European journal of psychotraumatology.

[29]  M. Craske,et al.  Is aversive learning a marker of risk for anxiety disorders in children? , 2008, Behaviour research and therapy.

[30]  K. Scherer,et al.  Conscious emotional experience emerges as a function of multilevel, appraisal-driven response synchronization , 2008, Consciousness and Cognition.

[31]  E. González-Bono,et al.  Skin conductance rises in preparation and recovery to psychosocial stress and its relationship with impulsivity and testosterone in intimate partner violence perpetrators. , 2013, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[32]  M. Frese,et al.  Longitudinal studies in organizational stress research: a review of the literature with reference to methodological issues. , 1996, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[33]  Joseph E LeDoux The Emotional Brain, Fear, and the Amygdala , 2003, Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology.

[34]  S. Orr,et al.  De novo conditioning in trauma-exposed individuals with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. , 2000, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[35]  E. Sadler‐Smith,et al.  The Role of Intuition in Strategic Decision Making , 2009 .

[36]  Patrik Vuilleumier,et al.  Testing Memory for Unseen Visual Stimuli in Patients with Extinction and Spatial Neglect , 2002, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[37]  A. Ohman,et al.  Preattentive processing, preparedness and phobias: effects of instruction on conditioned electrodermal responses to masked and non-masked fear-relevant stimuli. , 1993, Behaviour research and therapy.

[38]  P. Maclean Psychosomatic Disease and the "Visceral Brain": Recent Developments Bearing on the Papez Theory of Emotion , 1949, Psychosomatic medicine.

[39]  J. Harro,et al.  Cholecystokinin-induced anxiety: How is it reflected in studies on exploratory behaviour? , 1991, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[40]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Extinction Learning in Humans Role of the Amygdala and vmPFC , 2004, Neuron.

[41]  D. Weisz,et al.  Effects of amygdala lesions on reflex facilitation and conditioned response acquisition during nictitating membrane response conditioning in rabbit. , 1992, Behavioral neuroscience.

[42]  Andreas Keil,et al.  Not what you expect: experience but not expectancy predicts conditioned responses in human visual and supplementary cortex. , 2009, Cerebral cortex.

[43]  Karl J. Friston,et al.  Time-series analysis for rapid event-related skin conductance responses , 2009, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[44]  N. Weisz,et al.  Tracking short-term auditory cortical plasticity during classical conditioning using frequency-tagged stimuli. , 2007, Cerebral cortex.

[45]  Chester W. Darrow,et al.  The galvanic skin reflex (sweating) and blood-pressure as preparatory and facilitative functions. , 1936 .

[46]  Justin C. D. Savage,et al.  Fearlessness in juvenile offenders is associated with offending rate. , 2013, Developmental science.

[47]  R. Edelberg,et al.  Electrodermal recovery rate, goal-orientation, and aversion. , 1972, Psychophysiology.

[48]  R. Zajonc Feeling and thinking : Preferences need no inferences , 1980 .

[49]  R. Edelberg,et al.  Scoring criteria for response latency and habituation in electrodermal research: a critique. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[50]  B. Fredrickson,et al.  Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. , 2004, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[51]  T. Dalgleish The emotional brain , 2004, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[52]  P. Venables,et al.  Mechanisms of palmar skin resistance and skin potential. , 1966, Psychological bulletin.

[53]  Chester W. Darrow,et al.  The Equation of the Galvanic Skin Reflex Curve: I. The Dynamics of Reaction in Relation to Excitation-Background , 1937 .

[54]  S. Rauch,et al.  Neurobiological Basis of Failure to Recall Extinction Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder , 2009, Biological Psychiatry.

[55]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Neural Circuitry Underlying the Regulation of Conditioned Fear and Its Relation to Extinction , 2008, Neuron.

[56]  J. Russell,et al.  Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant. , 1999 .

[57]  E. Gordon,et al.  Separating individual skin conductance responses in a short interstimulus-interval paradigm , 2005, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[58]  Daniel C. Ganster,et al.  Effects of stressful job demands and control on physiological and attitudinal outcomes in a hospital setting. , 1993, Academy of Management journal. Academy of Management.

[59]  Arne Öhman,et al.  On the automatic nature of phobic fear: conditioned electrodermal responses to masked fear-relevant stimuli. , 1993, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[60]  Hugo D. Critchley,et al.  Volitional Control of Autonomic Arousal: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Study , 2002, NeuroImage.

[61]  A. Damasio,et al.  Failure to respond autonomically to anticipated future outcomes following damage to prefrontal cortex. , 1996, Cerebral cortex.

[62]  Nick Lee,et al.  Organizational cognitive neuroscience drives theoretical progress, or : the curious case of the straw man murder , 2016 .

[63]  R. Lazarus Thoughts on the relations between emotion and cognition. , 1982 .

[64]  K. Parkes,et al.  Coping in stressful episodes: the role of individual differences, environmental factors, and situational characteristics. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[65]  Daniel S Pine,et al.  Elevated fear conditioning to socially relevant unconditioned stimuli in social anxiety disorder. , 2008, The American journal of psychiatry.

[66]  Delphine Nélis,et al.  Emotional plasticity: conditions and effects of improving emotional competence in adulthood. , 2011, The Journal of applied psychology.

[67]  H. Critchley,et al.  Neural Activity Relating to Generation and Representation of Galvanic Skin Conductance Responses: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[68]  Laura Huang,et al.  Managing the Unknowable , 2015 .

[69]  K. Scherer,et al.  The Relationship of Emotion to Cognition: A Functional Approach to a Semantic Controversy , 1987 .

[70]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Human Amygdala Activation during Conditioned Fear Acquisition and Extinction: a Mixed-Trial fMRI Study , 1998, Neuron.

[71]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Evidence for recovery of fear following immediate extinction in rats and humans. , 2008, Learning & memory.

[72]  R. Arvey,et al.  Biological Factors in Organizational Behavior and I/O Psychology: An Introduction to the Special Section , 2015 .

[73]  April C. May,et al.  When the brain does not adequately feel the body: Links between low resilience and interoception , 2016, Biological Psychology.

[74]  R. Wyer,et al.  Mood as Input: People Have to Interpret the Motivational Implications of Their Moods Moods and Processing , 2022 .

[75]  Hanna Damasio,et al.  Intact electrodermal skin conductance responses after bilateral amygdala damage , 1989, Neuropsychologia.

[76]  H. Damasio,et al.  The Iowa Gambling Task and the somatic marker hypothesis: some questions and answers , 2005, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[77]  L. Johnson,et al.  Spontaneous electrodermal activity during waking and sleeping. , 1966, Psychophysiology.

[78]  James M. LeBreton,et al.  Exploring the disruptive effects of psychopathy and aggression on group processes and group effectiveness. , 2014, The Journal of applied psychology.

[79]  M. Benedek,et al.  Decomposition of skin conductance data by means of nonnegative deconvolution , 2010, Psychophysiology.

[80]  C. Grillon,et al.  Overgeneralization of conditioned fear as a pathogenic marker of panic disorder. , 2010, The American journal of psychiatry.

[81]  P. Hom,et al.  A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents and Correlates of Employee Turnover: Update, Moderator Tests, and Research Implications for the Next Millennium , 2000 .

[82]  D. Hermans,et al.  Pre-trauma individual differences in extinction learning predict posttraumatic stress. , 2013, Behaviour research and therapy.

[83]  C. A. Morgan,et al.  Fear-potentiated startle conditioning to explicit and contextual cues in Gulf War veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. , 1999, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[84]  Erik Dane,et al.  Exploring Intuition and its Role in Managerial Decision Making , 2007 .

[85]  P Vuilleumier,et al.  Neural response to emotional faces with and without awareness: event-related fMRI in a parietal patient with visual extinction and spatial neglect , 2002, Neuropsychologia.

[86]  H. Flor,et al.  Psychophysiological and subjective indicators of aversive pavlovian conditioning in generalized social phobia , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[87]  A. Schell,et al.  Skin conductance fear conditioning impairments and aggression: a longitudinal study. , 2015, Psychophysiology.

[88]  H. Flor,et al.  A mechanism-oriented approach to psychopathology: The role of Pavlovian conditioning. , 2015, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[89]  B. Olatunji,et al.  Implications of emotion regulation for the shift from normative fear-relevant learning to anxiety-related psychopathology. , 2007, The American psychologist.

[90]  C. Mangina,et al.  Direct electrical stimulation of specific human brain structures and bilateral electrodermal activity. , 1996, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[91]  F. Wilhelm,et al.  Fear conditioning in panic disorder: Enhanced resistance to extinction. , 2007, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[92]  D. Watson,et al.  General factors of affective temperament and their relation to job satisfaction over time , 1993 .

[93]  M. Benedek,et al.  A continuous measure of phasic electrodermal activity , 2010, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[94]  A. Öhman Nonconscious control of autonomic responses: A role for Pavlovian conditioning? , 1988, Biological Psychology.

[95]  Georgia T. Chao,et al.  Mentoring Phases and Outcomes , 1997 .

[96]  Andrea Groeppel-Klein Arousal and consumer in-store behavior , 2005, Brain Research Bulletin.

[97]  H. Damasio,et al.  Characterization of the decision-making deficit of patients with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions. , 2000, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[98]  T. Adams,et al.  Modification of skin mechanical properties by eccrine sweat gland activity. , 1969, Journal of applied physiology.

[99]  R. Edelberg Electrodermal Mechanisms: A Critique of the Two-Effector Hypothesis and a Proposed Replacement , 1993 .

[100]  Jochen I. Menges,et al.  Biological implicit measures in HRM and OB: A question of how not if , 2013 .

[101]  Samuel Bendahan,et al.  Leader corruption depends on power and testosterone , 2015 .

[102]  B. Fredrickson,et al.  Open hearts build lives: positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. , 2008, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[103]  J. Laird,et al.  Bodily Influences on Emotional Feelings: Accumulating Evidence and Extensions of William James’s Theory of Emotion , 2014 .

[104]  Emily D. Heaphy,et al.  Positive Social Interactions and the Human Body at Work: Linking Organizations and Physiology , 2006 .

[105]  A. Damasio,et al.  Deciding Advantageously Before Knowing the Advantageous Strategy , 1997, Science.

[106]  A. Ohman,et al.  Backward masking and skin conductance responses after conditioning to nonfeared but fear-relevant stimuli in fearful subjects. , 1993, Psychophysiology.

[107]  B. Feige,et al.  Learning as a Model for Neural Plasticity in Major Depression , 2010, Biological Psychiatry.

[108]  P. Ekman An argument for basic emotions , 1992 .

[109]  Comparison of two methods for producing response inhibition in electrodermal conditioning. , 1974, Journal of experimental psychology.

[110]  P. Lovibond,et al.  Safety behaviours preserve threat beliefs: Protection from extinction of human fear conditioning by an avoidance response. , 2009, Behaviour Research and Therapy.

[111]  H. Critchley,et al.  Neural Activity in the Human Brain Relating to Uncertainty and Arousal during Anticipation , 2001, Neuron.

[112]  Karl J. Friston,et al.  Brain Systems Mediating Aversive Conditioning: an Event-Related fMRI Study , 1998, Neuron.

[113]  H. Leitenberg,et al.  Individual differences among undergraduate women in methods of coping with stressful events: the impact of cumulative childhood stressors and abuse. , 2004, Child abuse & neglect.

[114]  Hanna Damasio,et al.  Decision-making and addiction (part I): impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences , 2002, Neuropsychologia.

[115]  C. Grillon,et al.  Classical fear conditioning in the anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis. , 2005, Behaviour research and therapy.

[116]  K. Scherer What are emotions? And how can they be measured? , 2005 .

[117]  A. Damasio The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. , 1996, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[118]  Jens G. Klinzing,et al.  Deficient fear conditioning in psychopathy as a function of interpersonal and affective disturbances , 2013, Front. Hum. Neurosci..