Handwriting in early childhood education: Current research and future implications

Early fine motor writing skills are quickly becoming recognized as an important school readiness skill associated with later academic success (Dinehart and Manfra, 2013; Grissmer et al., 2010; Son and Meisels, 2006). Yet, little is known about the development of handwriting, the extent to which it is of value in the early childhood classroom and the best means by which to teach handwriting, or at least handwriting readiness, to young children. The current work reviews the literature on handwriting and its place in early childhood education. Overall, this article serves as a call for (a) researchers to continue examining the role of handwriting in the early education and development of young children and (b) practitioners to develop and implement programmes they know to be best practice in teaching early handwriting or handwriting ‘readiness’ skills.

[1]  Adele Diamond,et al.  Biological processes in prevention and intervention: the promotion of self-regulation as a means of preventing school failure. , 2008 .

[2]  Julie E. Dockrell,et al.  The slow handwriting of undergraduate students constrains overall performance in exam essays , 2005 .

[3]  K. Feder,et al.  Handwriting development, competency, and intervention , 2007, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[4]  S. Rosenblum,et al.  Product and Process Evaluation of Handwriting Difficulties , 2003 .

[5]  Denis Alamargot,et al.  Modelling the Development of Written Composition , 2009 .

[6]  A. Latimer,et al.  High Levels of Contextual Interference Enhance Handwriting Skill Acquisition , 2004, Journal of motor behavior.

[7]  Elizabeth Sulzby,et al.  Emergent Literacy: Writing and Reading. Writing Research: Multidisciplinary Inquiries into the Nature of Writing Series. , 1986 .

[8]  JENNIFER MAZZOLA SORTOR,et al.  Are the Results of the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration and Its Subtests Related to Achievement Test Scores? , 2003, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[9]  S. Graham Handwriting and Spelling Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: A Review , 1999 .

[10]  A. W. Blöte,et al.  A Longitudinal Study on Dysgraphic Handwriting in Primary School , 1993, Journal of learning disabilities.

[11]  R. Abbott,et al.  Treatment of Handwriting Problems in Beginning Writers: Transfer from Handwriting to Composition. , 1997 .

[12]  Louis Manfra,et al.  Associations Between Low-Income Children's Fine Motor Skills in Preschool and Academic Performance in Second Grade , 2013 .

[13]  Megan M. McClelland,et al.  Self‐regulation in early childhood: Improving conceptual clarity and developing ecologically valid measures. , 2012 .

[14]  B. Tuck,et al.  Effects of Achievement Expectations and Handwriting Quality on Scoring Essays. , 1983 .

[15]  K. E. Beery,et al.  Beery VMI : with supplemental developmental tests of visual perception and motor coordination and, Stepping stones age norms from birth to age six : administration, scoring, and teaching manual , 2004 .

[16]  Lindsay Dennis,et al.  Preschool Teachers and Children’s Emergent Writing: Supporting Diverse Learners , 2013 .

[17]  A. Henderson,et al.  Fine motor activities in Head Start and kindergarten classrooms. , 2003, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[18]  O. Bart,et al.  A short-term graphomotor program for improving writing readiness skills of first-grade students. , 2007, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[19]  R. Gersten,et al.  Teaching Expressive Writing to Students with Learning Disabilities , 1999, Journal of learning disabilities.

[20]  N. Rubin,et al.  Two sides of the same coin: variations in teaching methods and failure to learn to write. , 2007, Special education: forward trends.

[21]  Bruce Saddler,et al.  How do primary grade teachers teach handwriting? A national survey , 2008 .

[22]  Marjean Taylor Kulp,et al.  Relationship between visual motor integration skill and academic performance in kindergarten through third grade. , 1999, Optometry and vision science : official publication of the American Academy of Optometry.

[23]  Mina Teicher,et al.  ADHD and Dysgraphia: Underlying Mechanisms , 2007, Cortex.

[24]  S. Rosenblum,et al.  Handwriting Performance of Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorders: A Pilot Study , 2008, Physical & occupational therapy in pediatrics.

[25]  Kevin J. Grimm,et al.  Fine motor skills and early comprehension of the world: two new school readiness indicators. , 2010, Developmental psychology.

[26]  Denise K. Donica,et al.  Effectiveness of a handwriting readiness program in head start: a two-group controlled trial. , 2011, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[27]  R. Karlsdottir,et al.  Problems in Developing Functional Handwriting , 2002, Perceptual and motor skills.

[28]  K. James,et al.  The effects of handwriting experience on functional brain development in pre-literate children , 2012, Trends in Neuroscience and Education.

[29]  Cynthia S. Puranik,et al.  From scribbles to scrabble: preschool children’s developing knowledge of written language , 2011, Reading and writing.

[30]  Jodie Levin-Epstein,et al.  Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA); interpretation of "federal means-tested public benefit"--HHS. Notice with comment period. , 1997, Federal register.

[31]  Charles A. MacArthur,et al.  New Tools for Writing: Assistive Technology for Students with Writing Difficulties. , 2000 .

[32]  Megan M. McClelland,et al.  Children at risk for early academic problems: the role of learning-related social skills , 2000 .

[33]  Sidney Chu Occupational Therapy for Children with Handwriting Difficulties: A Framework for Evaluation and Treatment , 1997 .

[34]  Christopher J Daly,et al.  Relationship between visual-motor integration and handwriting skills of children in kindergarten: a modified replication study. , 2003, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[35]  William M. Murrah,et al.  Fine motor skills and executive function both contribute to kindergarten achievement. , 2012, Child development.

[36]  Leslie J. Couse,et al.  A Tablet Computer for Young Children? Exploring its Viability for Early Childhood Education , 2010 .

[37]  B. Keogh,et al.  Visuo-Motor Ability for School Prediction: A Seven-Year Study , 1967, Perceptual and motor skills.

[38]  S. Graham,et al.  Primary Grade Writing Instruction: A National Survey. , 2008 .

[39]  S. Graham,et al.  Is handwriting causally related to learning to write? Treatment of handwriting problems in beginning writers , 2000 .

[40]  Virginia W. Berninger,et al.  Gender differences in orthographic, verbal, and compositional fluency: Implications for assessing writing disabilities in primary grade children , 1992 .

[41]  A. Diamond,et al.  Preschool Program Improves Cognitive Control , 2007, Science.

[42]  D Colledge,et al.  Linking home and residential school. , 1982, Special education: forward trends.

[43]  S. Calhoun,et al.  Learning, Attention, Writing, and Processing Speed in Typical Children and Children with ADHD, Autism, Anxiety, Depression, and Oppositional-Defiant Disorder , 2007, Child neuropsychology : a journal on normal and abnormal development in childhood and adolescence.

[44]  Joseph Klein,et al.  The effect of variations in handwriting and print on evaluation of student essays , 2005 .

[45]  E. Koppitz The Bender Gestalt Test for Young Children , 1964 .

[46]  Marina M Schoemaker,et al.  Fine motor skills and effects of methylphenidate in children with attention‐deficit—hyperactivity disorder and developmental coordination disorder , 2006, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[47]  M. Fayol,et al.  Writing in preliterate children , 1992 .

[48]  Asha V Asher Handwriting instruction in elementary schools. , 2006, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[49]  Virginia W. Berninger,et al.  Reading and Writing Acquisition , 1996 .

[50]  Susan M. Cahill Where Does Handwriting Fit In? , 2009 .

[51]  Elena Bodrova,et al.  Tools of the Mind: The Vygotskian Approach to Early Childhood Education , 1995 .

[52]  David Wray,et al.  Handwriting – A Forgotten Language Skill? , 2008 .

[53]  Elena Bodrova,et al.  Developing Self-Regulation in Kindergarten Can We Keep All the Crickets in the Basket? , 2008 .

[54]  James Laffey,et al.  Technology in the Home and the Achievement of Young Children: Findings From the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study , 2006 .

[55]  N. Rinehart,et al.  Handwriting in Children With ADHD , 2014, Journal of attention disorders.

[56]  D. Amso,et al.  Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching , 2006, Neuropsychologia.

[57]  J. Velay,et al.  The influence of writing practice on letter recognition in preschool children: a comparison between handwriting and typing. , 2005, Acta psychologica.

[58]  Theresa Overall,et al.  Using Technology to Motivate Children to Write: Changing Attitudes in Children and Preservice Teachers , 2004 .

[59]  Judith A. Schickedanz,et al.  Much More Than the ABCs: The Early Stages of Reading and Writing , 2012 .

[60]  Megan M. McClelland,et al.  A structured observation of behavioral self-regulation and its contribution to kindergarten outcomes. , 2009, Developmental psychology.

[61]  Michael Pressley,et al.  Reading Instruction That Works: The Case for Balanced Teaching , 1998 .

[62]  Michael Shevell,et al.  Handwriting Performance in Children With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) , 2008, Journal of child neurology.

[63]  Fine motor difficulties: the need for advocating for the role of occupational therapy in schools , 2007 .

[64]  Vincent Connelly,et al.  A comparison of keyboarded and handwritten compositions and the relationship with transcription speed. , 2007, The British journal of educational psychology.

[65]  Michael B. Robb,et al.  TECHNOLOGY IN THE LIVES OF TEACHERS AND CLASSROOMS : Survey of Classroom Teachers and Family Child Care Providers , 2010 .

[66]  T. Brown,et al.  Executive Functions and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Implications of two conflicting views , 2006 .

[67]  S. Graham,et al.  A review of handwriting research: Progress and prospects from 1980 to 1994 , 1996 .

[68]  S. Meisels,et al.  The Relationship of Young Children's Motor Skills to Later School Achievement , 2006 .

[69]  Cynthia S. Puranik,et al.  Examining the contribution of handwriting and spelling to written expression in kindergarten children , 2012, Reading and writing.

[70]  C. Christensen Relationship between orthographic-motor integration and computer use for the production of creative and well-structured written text. , 2004, The British journal of educational psychology.

[71]  Paula Fitzpatrick,et al.  In-depth analysis of handwriting curriculum and instruction in four kindergarten classrooms , 2010 .

[72]  P. Jose,et al.  Fine motor skills and mathematics achievement in East Asian American and European American kindergartners and first graders , 2007 .

[73]  S. Graham Issues in Handwriting Instruction. , 1992 .

[74]  Cheryl M. Yates,et al.  Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing , 1992 .

[75]  B. Smits-Engelsman,et al.  Fine motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD based on poor grapho-motor ability. , 2001, Human movement science.

[76]  S J Amundson,et al.  Relationship between visuomotor and handwriting skills of children in kindergarten. , 1994, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[77]  Dennis Briggs,et al.  A Study of the Influence of Handwriting upon Grades Using Examination Scripts , 1980 .

[78]  Carol A. Christensen,et al.  Relationship between automaticity in handwriting and students' ability to generate written text , 1999 .

[79]  A. Diamond Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. , 2000, Child development.

[80]  Sara Rosenblum,et al.  PRODUCT AND PROCESS EVALUATION OF HANDWRITING DIFFICULTIES: A REVIEW , 2003 .

[81]  A. Diamond,et al.  Interventions Shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4 to 12 Years Old , 2011, Science.

[82]  S. Cermak,et al.  Fine motor activities in elementary school: preliminary findings and provisional implications for children with fine motor problems. , 1992, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[83]  J. Sarama,et al.  Young Children and Technology: What Does the Research Say? , 2003 .

[84]  C. Blair Self-regulation and school readiness , 2003 .

[85]  Marie M. Clay,et al.  What Did I Write?: Beginning Writing Behaviour , 1975 .

[86]  Virginia W. Berninger,et al.  Theory-Based Diagnosis and Remediation of Writing Disabilities. , 1991 .

[87]  D. Marr,et al.  Handwriting Readiness: Locatives and Visuomotor Skills in the Kindergarten Year. , 2001 .

[88]  C. Blair,et al.  Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. , 2007, Child development.

[89]  Rainer Greifeneder,et al.  On Writing Legibly , 2010 .

[90]  Marilyn Cochran-Smith,et al.  Word Processing and Writing in Elementary Classrooms: A Critical Review of Related Literature , 1991 .

[91]  Sara Rosenblum,et al.  Relationships among biomechanical ergonomic factors, handwriting product quality, handwriting efficiency, and computerized handwriting process measures in children with and without handwriting difficulties. , 2006, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.

[92]  Janet Rogers,et al.  Relationships between handwriting and keyboarding performance of sixth-grade students. , 2002, The American journal of occupational therapy : official publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association.