From a Distance …

Egocentric anchoring, that is, overimputing one’s own perspective onto others constitutes a major obstacle for successful perspective taking. Accordingly, differentiating between the self and others is beneficial for perspective taking because it highlights the inadequacy of egocentric anchoring. The current research tested whether activating avoidance motivational orientation enhances perspective-taking performance (compared to approach motivational orientation), because self-other differentiation is facilitated under avoidance orientation. Supporting these predictions, two experiments showed that inducing avoidance motivational orientation (compared to approach orientation) either via goal framing or via the respective arm position enhances perspective-taking performance. Using experimental causal chain design, Study 3a supported the hypothesis that avoidance motivational orientation fosters self-other differentiation, while Study 3b showed that fostering self-other differentiation experimentally enhanced perspective-taking performance. The findings are discussed with regard to the role of psychological distance in perspective taking.

[1]  W. S. Rholes,et al.  Category accessibility and impression formation , 1977 .

[2]  Carl-Walter Kohlmann,et al.  Untersuchungen mit einer deutschen Version der "Positive and Negative Affect Schedule" (PANAS). , 1996 .

[3]  S. Altman,et al.  The development of role-taking and communication skills in children , 1969 .

[4]  A. van Knippenberg,et al.  The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of trivial pursuit. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[5]  A. Aron,et al.  Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale and the structure of interpersonal closeness , 1992 .

[6]  W. Ickes,et al.  Empathic accuracy in the interactions of male friends versus male strangers. , 1992, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[7]  A. Galinsky,et al.  Perspective-taking: decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[8]  F. Strack,et al.  Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: a nonobtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[9]  A. Aron,et al.  Close Relationships as Including Other in the Self , 1991 .

[10]  G. Mead,et al.  Mind, Self and Society. From the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist. , 1935 .

[11]  Mark H. Davis.  Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. , 1983 .

[12]  Dennis R. Falk,et al.  The Effects of Perspective-Taking and Egocentrism on Problem Solving in Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Groups , 1977 .

[13]  W. Prinz.  Perception and Action Planning , 1997 .

[14]  R. A. Wicklund,et al.  Self-directed attention and taking the other's perspective , 1983 .

[15]  D. Watson,et al.  Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[16]  P. B. Pufall,et al.  Piaget's Theory : Prospects and Possibilities , 1992 .

[17]  J. Gray,et al.  Brain systems that mediate both emotion and cognition. , 1990 .

[18]  B. Keysar,et al.  The Illusory Transparency of Intention: Linguistic Perspective Taking in Text , 1994, Cognitive Psychology.

[19]  R. Morrison.  Mind, Self and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist , 1936 .

[20]  R. Janoff-Bulman,et al.  Approach Versus Avoidance Goals: Differences in Seff-Evaluation and Well-Being , 1996 .

[21]  B. Hannover,et al.  Assimilation and contrast in social comparisons as a consequence of self‐construal activation , 2000 .

[22]  J. Flavell.  Perspectives on perspective taking. , 1992 .

[23]  Raymond S. Nickerson,et al.  How We Know—and Sometimes Misjudge—What Others Know: Imputing One's Own Knowledge to Others , 1999 .

[24]  J. Förster,et al.  The effects of approach and avoidance motor actions on the elements of creative insight. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[25]  Shann Turnbull,et al.  Self-Regulation , 1997 .

[26]  Max H. Bazerman,et al.  Improving negotiation effectiveness under final offer arbitration: The role of selection and training. , 1982 .

[27]  M. Schoen.  The Moral Judgment of the Child. , 1933 .

[28]  J. Cacioppo,et al.  Rudimentary determinants of attitudes. II: Arm flexion and extension have differential effects on attitudes. , 1993, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[29]  Stephen J. Hoch,et al.  Perceived consensus and predictive accuracy: The pros and cons of projection. , 1987 .

[30]  S. Fiske,et al.  The Handbook of Social Psychology , 1935 .

[31]  C. Carver,et al.  Origins and Functions of Positive and Negative Affect: A Control-Process View. , 1990 .