A review of gravity wave saturation processes, effects, and variability in the middle atmosphere

This paper provides a review of our current understanding of the processes responsible for gravity wave saturation as well as the principal effects and variability of saturation in the lower and middle atmosphere. We discuss the theoretical and observational evidence for linear and nonlinear saturation processes and examine the consequences of saturation for wave amplitude limits, momentum and energy fluxes, the diffusion of heat and constituents, and the establishment of a near-universal vertical wavenumber spectrum. Recent studies of gravity wave variability are reviewed and are seen to provide insights into the significant causes of wave variability throughout the atmosphere.

[1]  D. Strobel,et al.  Energy balance constraints on gravity wave induced eddy diffusion in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere , 1985 .

[2]  S. Solomon,et al.  Seasonal variations of ozone in the upper mesosphere and gravity waves , 1984 .

[3]  J. Klostermeyer.  Observations Indicating Parametric Instabilities in Internal Gravity Waves at Thermospheric Heights , 1984 .

[4]  D. Lilly.  Wave Momentum Flux—A GARP Problem , 1972 .

[5]  J. Röttger,et al.  VHF and UHF Doppler radars as tools for synoptic research , 1982 .

[6]  Douglas K. Lilly,et al.  Stratified Turbulence and the Mesoscale Variability of the Atmosphere , 1983 .

[7]  R. Rüster.  Winds and waves in the middle atmosphere as observed by ground-based radars , 1984 .

[8]  A. Manson,et al.  Observations of mesospheric wind velocities: 2. Cross sections of power spectral density for 48–8 hours, 8–1 hours, and 1 hour to 10 min over 60–110 km for 1981 , 1985 .

[9]  J. Weinstock,et al.  Theoretical gravity wave spectrum in the atmosphere: Strong and weak wave interactions , 1985 .

[10]  K. Yeh,et al.  Evolution of atmospheric spectrum by processes of wave‐wave interaction , 1985 .

[11]  F. Bretherton,et al.  Resonant interaction of oceanic internal waves , 1977 .

[12]  J. W. Kaufman,et al.  Spectral Analysis of Detailed Vertical Wind Speed Profiles , 1969 .

[13]  I. Reid.  Gravity wave motions in the upper middle atmosphere (60―110 km) , 1986 .

[14]  C. O. Hines,et al.  INTERNAL ATMOSPHERIC GRAVITY WAVES AT IONOSPHERIC HEIGHTS , 1960 .

[15]  R. R. Long.  Some Aspects of the Flow of Stratified Fluids , 1955 .

[16]  Susumu Kato,et al.  Observational evidence of a saturated gravity wave spectrum in the troposphere and lower stratosphere , 1988 .

[17]  A. Manson,et al.  Observations of mesospheric wind velocities 2 , 1981 .

[18]  R. Garello,et al.  The kinetic energy density in the troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere: A preliminary study using the Poker Flat MST radar in Alaska , 1985 .

[19]  Hiroshi L. Tanaka.  A slowly varying model of the lower stratospheric zonal wind minimum induced by mesoscale mountain wave breakdown , 1986 .

[20]  C. Cot,et al.  Wave‐turbulence interaction in the stratosphere: A case study , 1986 .

[21]  T. Tsuda,et al.  Some findings on correlation between the stratospheric echo power and the wind shear observed by the Arecibo UHF radar , 1985 .

[22]  C. Hines,et al.  Generation of Turbulence by Atmospheric Gravity Waves , 1988 .

[23]  Matthew T. DeLand,et al.  Vertical constituent transport in the mesosphere , 1987 .

[24]  K. Yeh,et al.  The instability of atmospheric gravity waves through wave‐wave interactions , 1981 .

[25]  F. Dalaudier,et al.  An improved atmospheric buoyancy wave spectrum model , 1988 .

[26]  J. Holton,et al.  The Role of Gravity Wave Induced Drag and Diffusion in the Momentum Budget of the Mesosphere , 1982 .

[27]  K. Hasselmann.  A criterion for nonlinear wave stability , 1967, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[28]  D. Strobel,et al.  Nonzonal gravity wave breaking in the winter mesosphere , 1984 .

[29]  David C. Fritts,et al.  A Climatology of Gravity Wave Motions in the Mesopause Region at Adelaide, Australia , 1987 .

[30]  T. Dunkerton.  Effect of nonlinear instability on gravity-wave momentum transport , 1987 .

[31]  C. R. Philbrick,et al.  Turbulence energy dissipation rates and inner scale sizes from rocket and radar data , 1988 .

[32]  R. Garcia,et al.  Tidal influences on vertical diffusion and diurnal variability of ozone in the mesosphere , 1987 .

[33]  T. Dunkerton.  Stochastic Parameterization of Gravity Wave Stresses , 1982 .

[34]  E. V. Thrane,et al.  Neutral air turbulence in the upper atmosphere observed during the Energy Budget Campaign , 1985 .

[35]  G. D. Nastrom,et al.  An Investigation of Terrain Effects on the Mesoscale Spectrum of Atmospheric Motions , 1987 .

[36]  Peter F. Lester,et al.  Waves and Turbulence in the Stratosphere , 1974 .

[37]  M. Yamamoto,et al.  Interpretation of the structure of mesospheric turbulence layers in terms of inertia gravity waves , 1988 .

[38]  T. Dunkerton.  Inertia–Gravity Waves in the Stratosphere , 1984 .

[39]  Rolando R. Garcia,et al.  The effect of breaking gravity waves on the dynamics and chemical composition of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere , 1985 .

[40]  C. Sidi,et al.  Observational evidence of an inertial wind structure in the stratosphere , 1986 .

[41]  D. Fritts,et al.  Convective and dynamical instabilities due to gravity wave motions in the lower and middle atmosphere: Theory and observations , 1985 .

[42]  J. Holton.  The Influence of Gravity Wave Breaking on the General Circulation of the Middle Atmosphere , 1983 .

[43]  D. Lilly,et al.  A Severe Downslope Windstorm and Aircraft Turbulence Event Induced by a Mountain Wave , 1978 .

[44]  J. Klostermeyer,et al.  VHF radar observation of wave instability and turbulence in the mesosphere , 1984 .

[45]  Iain M. Reid,et al.  Measurements of mesospheric gravity wave momentum fluxes and mean flow accelerations at Adelaide, Australia , 1987 .

[46]  J. Holton,et al.  A Further Study of Gravity Wave Induced Drag and Diffusion in the Mesosphere , 1984 .

[47]  J. Klostermeyer,et al.  On parametric instabilities of finite-amplitude internal gravity waves , 1982, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[48]  W. Ecklund,et al.  A Preliminary Climatology of the Spectrum of Vertical Velocity Observed by Clear-Air Doppler Radar , 1986 .

[49]  C. Russell Philbrick,et al.  Evidence of gravity wave saturation and local turbulence production in the summer mesosphere and lower thermosphere during the STATE experiment , 1988 .

[50]  R. R. Long.  Some Aspects of the Flow of Stratified Fluids: 111. Continuous Density Gradients , 1955 .

[51]  T. Dunkerton,et al.  Propagation and selective transmission of internal gravity waves in a sudden warming , 1984 .

[52]  Chris Garrett,et al.  Space-Time Scales of Internal Waves' A Progress Report , 1975 .

[53]  I. Reid,et al.  VHF radar observations of cat's-eye-like structures at mesopheric heights , 1987, Nature.

[54]  R. Lindzen.  Gravity waves in the mesosphere , 1984 .

[55]  C. W. Newton,et al.  Mountain Torques in the Global Angular Momentum Balance. , 1971 .

[56]  D. Strobel,et al.  A numerical model of gravity wave breaking and stress in the mesosphere , 1983 .

[57]  K. Yeh,et al.  Resonant and nonresonant wave‐wave interactions in an isothermal atmosphere , 1988 .

[58]  T. VanZandt,et al.  A universal spectrum of buoyancy waves in the atmosphere , 1982 .

[59]  W. Hocking.  Radar studies of small scale structure in the upper middle atmosphere and lower ionosphere , 1987 .

[60]  D. A. Carter,et al.  The spectrum of atmospheric velocity fluctuations at 8 km and 86 km , 1982 .

[61]  G. D. Nastrom,et al.  Mean meridional winds in the mid‐ and high‐latitude summer mesosphere , 1982 .

[62]  D. Rind,et al.  The GISS Global Climate-Middle Atmosphere Model. Part II. Model Variability Due to Interactions between Planetary Waves, the Mean Circulation and Gravity Wave Drag , 1988 .

[63]  T. VanZandt,et al.  A model for gravity wave spectra observed by Doppler sounding systems , 1985 .

[64]  David C. Fritts,et al.  Mesospheric Momentum Flux Studies at Adelaide, Australia: Observations and a Gravity Wave–Tidal Interaction Model , 1987 .

[65]  D. Fritts,et al.  Gravity wave heat fluxes - A Lagrangian approach , 1988 .

[66]  Norman A. McFarlane,et al.  The Effect of Orographically Excited Gravity Wave Drag on the General Circulation of the Lower Stratosphere and Troposphere , 1987 .

[67]  David C. Fritts,et al.  Gravity wave saturation in the middle atmosphere: A review of theory and observations , 1984 .

[68]  J. Weinstock.  Heat flux induced by gravity waves , 1983 .

[69]  J. L. Lumley,et al.  The Spectrum of Nearly Inertial Turbulence in a Stably Stratified Fluid. , 1964 .

[70]  J. Röttger.  The relation of gravity waves and turbulence in the mesosphere , 1986 .

[71]  R. Vincent,et al.  Measurements of the horizontal scales and phase velocities of short period mesospheric gravity waves at Adelaide, Australia , 1987 .

[72]  J. Houghton.  The stratosphere and mesosphere , 1978 .

[73]  K. S. Gage,et al.  MST radar studies of wind and turbulence in the middle atmosphere , 1984 .

[74]  R. Hodges.  Eddy diffusion coefficients due to instabilities in internal gravity waves. , 1969 .

[75]  J. Barnett,et al.  Comparison of geostrophic and observed winds in the upper mesosphere over Saskatoon, Canada , 1987 .

[76]  W. Ecklund,et al.  Vertical wind variability observed by VHF radar in the lee of the Colorado Rockies , 1982 .

[77]  K. S. Gage,et al.  Evidence far a k−5/3 Law Inertial Range in Mesoscale Two-Dimensional Turbulence , 1979 .

[78]  T. Palmer,et al.  Alleviation of a systematic westerly bias in general circulation and numerical weather prediction models through an orographic gravity wave drag parametrization , 1986 .

[79]  D. Fritts,et al.  A theory of enhanced saturation of the gravity wave spectrum due to increases in atmospheric stability , 1989 .

[80]  J. Mahlman,et al.  Interactions between Gravity Waves and Planetary-Scale Flow Simulated by the GFDL “SKYHI” General Circulation Model , 1986 .

[81]  R. Mied.  The occurrence of parametric instabilities in finite-amplitude internal gravity waves , 1976, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[82]  D. Lilly,et al.  Observations of a Stationary Mountain Wave and its Associated Momentum Flux and Energy Dissipation , 1973 .

[83]  Y. Desaubies.  Analytical Representation of Internal Wave Spectra , 1976 .

[84]  R. Lindzen.  Multiple gravity-wave breaking levels , 1985 .

[85]  E. Dewan,et al.  Saturation and the “universal” spectrum for vertical profiles of horizontal scalar winds in the atmosphere , 1986 .

[86]  J. Weinstock.  Nonlinear Theory of Gravity Waves: Momentum Deposition, Generalized Rayleigh Friction, and Diffusion , 1982 .

[87]  Chris Garrett,et al.  Space-Time scales of internal waves , 1972 .

[88]  F. Bretherton.  Momentum transport by gravity waves , 1969 .

[89]  Anne K. Smith,et al.  An observational estimate of gravity wave drag from the momentum balance in the middle atmosphere , 1985 .

[90]  R. Lindzen.  Turbulence and stress owing to gravity wave and tidal breakdown , 1981 .

[91]  D. Fritts,et al.  VHF Echoes from the High-Latitude Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere: Observations and Interpretations , 1983 .

[92]  B. Inhester.  The effect of inhomogeneities on the resonant parametric interaction of gravity waves in the atmosphere , 1987 .

[93]  A. F. Quesada,et al.  Spectral analysis of 10m resolution scalar velocity profiles in the stratosphere , 1984 .

[94]  T. Dunkerton,et al.  Fluxes of Heat and Constituents Due to Convectively Unstable Gravity Waves , 1985 .

[95]  G. Russell,et al.  The GISS Global Climate-Middle Atmosphere Model. Part I: Model Structure and Climatology , 1988 .

[96]  J. Holton.  The Generation of Mesospheric Planetary Waves by Zonally Asymmetric Gravity Wave Breaking , 1984 .

[97]  A. Manson,et al.  Observations of mesospheric wind velocities: 1. Gravity wave horizontal scales and phase velocities determined from spaced wind observations , 1985 .

[98]  R. Walterscheid.  Dynamical cooling induced by dissipating internal gravity waves , 1981 .

[99]  R. Hodges,et al.  GENERATION OF TURBULENCE IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE BY INTERNAL GRAVITY WAVES. , 1967 .

[100]  W. Hocking.  Mesospheric turbulence intensities measured with a HF radar at 35°S - II , 1983 .

[101]  Steve Smith,et al.  Evidence for a Saturated Spectrum of Atmospheric Gravity Waves. , 1987 .

[102]  Iain M. Reid,et al.  HF Doppler Measurements of Mesospheric Gravity Wave Momentum Fluxes , 1983 .

[103]  W. Chao,et al.  On the linear approximation of gravity wave saturation in the mesosphere , 1984 .

[104]  Neil Pomphrey,et al.  Nonlinear interactions among internal gravity waves , 1986 .

[105]  G. R. Cook,et al.  Identification of isolated NO lines in balloon‐borne infrared solar spectra , 1980 .