Social Coordination and the Superorganism

An organized biological unit relatively independent of other units is considered a biological individual. Originally the individual unit must have been considered almost self evident, but the analyses of intraspecific organic units have acquainted us with types of individual entities such as genes, viruses, non-nucleated cells, nucleated cells, cell colonies, multicellular organisms with simple tissues, metamorphic individuals, colonial metazoa, multicellular organisms with organs, metameric individuals, aggregations, sex pairs, families, societies, and finally interspecific groups of various ranks. These ascending hierarchies of integrated units with their special characteristics form the basis of the concept of emergent evolution (Pepper, 1926; Wheeler, 1928a; Morgan, 1933; Wright, 1935).

[1]  A. Sturtevant.  Essays on Evolution. II. On the Effects of Selection on Social Insects , 1938, The Quarterly Review of Biology.

[2]  C. Thompson.  Origin of the castes of the common termite, leucotermes flavipes kol , 1917 .

[3]  W. M. Wheeler,et al.  The ant‐colony as an organism , 1911 .

[4]  Etienne b. Rabaud.  Phénomène social et sociétés animales , 1937 .

[5]  Shisan C. Chen.  Social Modification of the Activity of Ants in Nest-Building , 1937, Physiological Zoology.

[6]  S. F. Cook,et al.  The nutritional requirements of Zootermopsis (Termopsis) angusticollis , 1933 .

[7]  C. R. Moore,et al.  Seasonal sexual rhythm and its experimental modification in the male of the thirteen‐lined ground squirrel (citellus tridecemlineatus) , 1935 .

[8]  R. Lillie.  The Nature of Organizing Action , 1938, American Naturalist.

[9]  C. L. Morgan,et al.  The emergence of novelty , 1933 .

[10]  E. V. Cowdry.  Human Biology and Racial Welfare , 1930, Nature.

[11]  R. Snodgrass,et al.  Principles of Insect Morphology , 1993 .

[12]  E Huntington,et al.  Season of birth. , 1940, The Eugenics review.

[13]  F. Marshall.  Sexual Periodicity and the Causes which Determine It , 1936, Nature.

[14]  W. K. Gregory.  Polyisomerism and Anisomerism in Cranial and Dental Evolution among Vertebrates. , 1934, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[15]  R. A. Fisher,et al.  The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection , 1931 .

[16]  O. Park,et al.  Studies in Nocturnal Ecology, II. Preliminary Analysis of Activity Rhythm in Nocturnal Forest Insects , 1932 .

[17]  L. J. Cole,et al.  Immunogenetic studies of species and of species hybrids from the cross of Columba livia and Streptopelia risoria , 1936 .

[18]  H. Heath.  Fertile termite soldiers , 1928 .

[19]  H. Spemann.  Some Factors of Animal Development , 1925 .

[20]  T. Park,et al.  Studies in Population Physiology. VII. The Relation of Environmental Conditioning to the Decline of Tribolium confusum Populations , 1937, Physiological Zoology.

[21]  G. B. Castle.  THE EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF CASTE DIFFERENTIATION IN TERMITES. , 1934, Science.

[22]  Bischoff.  Dr. Fr. Maidl, Die Lebensgewohnheiten und Instinkte der staatenbildenden Insekten. Wien (Fritz Wagner) 1933–1934. Lfg. 6–9. (Das Werk gelangt in 12 Lieferungen in zweimonatlichen Abständen zur Ausgabe; Preis jeder Lieferung 3,60 RM.) , 1934 .

[23]  A. J. Carlson,et al.  The machinery of the body , 1930 .

[24]  H. v. Buttel-Reepen,et al.  Leben und Wesen der Bienen , 1915 .

[25]  C. Elton,et al.  Periodic Fluctuations in the Numbers of Animals: Their Causes and Effects , 1924 .

[26]  G. F. Simmons,et al.  On the control of reproductive activity in an annual‐breeding mammal (Citellus tridecemlineatus) , 1934 .

[27]  James B. Murphy.  FACTORS OF RESISTANCE TO HETEROPLASTIC TISSUE-GRAFTING : STUDIES IN TISSUE SPECIFICITY. III. , 1914 .

[28]  T. Snyder.  "Adaptations" to social life: The termites (isoptera) , 2022 .

[29]  F. Marshall.  The Croonian Lecture. Sexual Periodicity and the Causes Which Determine It , 1936 .

[30]  D. M. T. Mobland.  ON THE CAUSES OE SWARMING IN THE HONEY BEE (APIS MELLIFERA L.): AN EXAMINATION OF THE BROOD FOOD THEORY , 1930 .

[31]  Ferdinand Gerstung.  Der Bien und seine Zucht , 1921 .

[32]  Louise Smith.  The hyobranchial apparatus of Spelerpes bislineatus , 1920 .

[33]  F. Alverdes.  Social life in the animal world , 2013 .

[34]  T. C. Schneirla.  A theory of army-ant behavior based upon the analysis of activities in a representative species. , 1938 .

[35]  E. A. Andrews.  Shell repair by the snail, Neritina , 1935 .

[36]  O. Park.  Studies in Nocturnal Ecology, III. Recording Apparatus and Further Analysis of Activity Rhythm , 1935 .

[37]  George P. Conger,et al.  The Doctrine of Levels , 2022 .

[38]  G. Gey,et al.  TRANSPLANTATION OF LIVING GRAFTS OF THYROID AND PARATHYROID GLANDS. , 1934, Annals of surgery.

[39]  F. S. Bodenheimer.  POPULATION PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL INSECTS , 1937 .

[40]  A. Whitehead.  Science and the Modern World , 1926 .

[41]  J. Smuts.  Holism and Evolution , 1926 .

[42]  P. W. Whiting.  SEX DETERMINATION IN BEES AND WASPS , 1935 .

[43]  Sewall Wright,et al.  Fisher's Theory of Dominance , 1929, The American Naturalist.

[44]  S. Wright,et al.  THE DISTRIBUTION OF GENE FREQUENCIES IN POPULATIONS. , 1937, Science.

[45]  Horatio Hackett Newman,et al.  Outlines of General Zoology. , 1930 .

[46]  Karl von Frisch,et al.  Über die "Sprache" der bienen : Eine tierpsychologische Untersuchung , 1923 .

[47]  W. H. Manwaring.  Organic Theory of the State , 1938 .

[48]  A. D. Imms.  On the Structure and Biology of Archotermopsis, Together with Descriptions of New Species of Intestinal Protozoa, and General Observations on the Isoptera , 1920 .

[49]  J. S. Nicholas,et al.  The development of embryonic rat tissues upon the chick chorioallantois , 1933 .

[50]  H. V. Wilson.  Sponges and Biology , 1932, The American Naturalist.

[51]  T. C. Schneirla.  Studies on army ants in Panama. , 1933 .

[52]  C. A. Kofoid,et al.  Termites and termite control , 1934 .