Age and the classroom learning of additional languages

This chapter deals with some commonly held views in relation to the age-factor dimensions of the classroom learning of additional languages which the authors regard as serious misunderstandings. The principal issues focused on are the following: (a) the widespread notion that the younger = better tendencies observed among naturalistic acquirers of additional languages can be assumed to operate also in formal instructional settings; (b) the often unexamined assumption that such support as exists for the Critical Period Hypothesis constitutes an argument for early instruction in additional languages, or that a resolution of the veracity or otherwise of this hypothesis would also resolve the question of when to introduce additional languages into our schools; (c) the idea that ultimate attainment in the context of the classroom learning of additional languages is so much bound up with the age of those doing the learning that almost no other factors are relevant. With respect to all of the above, alternative research-based propositions are presented and advocated.

[1]  W. Penfield,et al.  Speech and Brain‐Mechanisms , 1960 .

[2]  E. Álvarez.  Chapter 6. Rate and Route of Acquisition in EFL Narrative Development at Different Ages , 2006 .

[3]  S. Krashen.  Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition. , 1979 .

[4]  Joan C. Mora.  Chapter 3 .Age Effects on Oral Fluency Development , 2006 .

[5]  Input for Instructed L2 Learners , 2008 .

[6]  Evelyn Marcussen Hatch,et al.  Psycholinguistics: A Second Language Perspective , 1983 .

[7]  Carmen Muñoz,et al.  Age and the rate of foreign language learning , 2006 .

[8]  Carmen Muñoz,et al.  8. Variation in Oral Skills Development and Age of Onset , 2003 .

[9]  J. Leśniewska,et al.  Age and SLA: Research Highways and Bye-Ways , 2012 .

[10]  R. Johnstone.  ADDRESSING 'THE AGE FACTOR': SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGES POLICY , 2002 .

[11]  Anna Niżegorodcew,et al.  Input for Instructed L2 Learners: The Relevance of Relevance , 2007 .

[12]  Primary French in the Balance , 1976 .

[13]  Carmen Muñoz,et al.  Age-related differences in foreign language learning. Revisiting the empirical evidence , 2008 .

[14]  S. Oyama.  A sensitive period for the acquisition of a nonnative phonological system , 1976 .

[15]  James Emil Flege,et al.  THE EFFECT OF EXPERIENCE ON ADULTS' ACQUISITION OF A SECOND LANGUAGE , 2001, Studies in Second Language Acquisition.

[16]  J. Cenoz.  Age differences in foreign language learning , 2002 .

[17]  David Singleton,et al.  Language Acquisition: The Age Factor , 1989 .

[18]  Catherine E. Snow,et al.  The Critical Period for Language Acquisition: Evidence from Second Language Learning. , 1978 .

[19]  Pádraig ó Riagáin,et al.  The Irish Language in the Republic of Ireland 1983: Preliminary Report of a National Survey. , 1984 .

[20]  MARIANNE NIKOLOV.  The Critical Period Hypothesis reconsidered: Successful adult learners of Hungarian and English , 2000 .

[21]  F. Genesee.  IS THERE AN OPTIMAL AGE FOR STARTING SECOND LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION , 1978 .

[22]  H. H. Stern,et al.  语言教学的基本概念 = Fundamental concepts of language teaching , 1983 .

[23]  Clare Burstall.  Primary French in the balance , 1976 .

[24]  Kenneth Hyltenstam.  Non-native Features of Near-native Speakers: On the Ultimate Attainment of Childhood L2 Learners , 1992 .

[25]  Carmen Muñoz,et al.  Symmetries and Asymmetries of Age Effects in Naturalistic and Instructed L2 Learning , 2008 .

[26]  Carmen Muñoz,et al.  A critical review of age-related research on L2 ultimate attainment , 2010, Language Teaching.

[27]  Russell Greiner,et al.  The Relevance of Relevance (Editorial) , 1997, Artif. Intell..

[28]  J. S. Johnson,et al.  Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language , 1989, Cognitive Psychology.

[29]  S. Oyama.  The Sensitive Period and Comprehension of Speech , 1978 .

[30]  Marilyn J. Hunt,et al.  Primary modern foreign languages: an overview of recent research, key issues and challenges for educational policy and practice , 2005 .

[31]  Bernard Spolsky,et al.  第二語言學習的條件 = Conditions for second language learning : introduction to a general theory , 1989 .

[32]  M. Patkowski.  The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. , 1980 .

[33]  R. Dekeyser.  Implicit and Explicit Learning , 2008 .

[34]  J. Oller,et al.  The Long-Term Effect of FLES: An Experiment , 1974 .

[35]  John T. Bruer,et al.  The myth of the first three years : a new understanding of early brain development and lifelong learning , 1999 .

[36]  J. Cenoz.  Facteurs déterminant l’acquisition d’une L3 : Age, développement cognitif et milieu , 2003 .

[37]  The Irish language , 1985 .