Noninvasive Brain Stimulation to Modulate Neuroplasticity in Traumatic Brain Injury

Objective:  To review the use of noninvasive brain stimulation (NBS) as a therapeutic tool to enhance neuroplasticity following traumatic brain injury (TBI).

[1]  R. Zafonte,et al.  Physical Exercise and Cognitive Recovery in Acquired Brain Injury: A Review of the Literature , 2009, PM & R : the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation.

[2]  S. Margulies,et al.  Modeling Brain Injury/Trauma , 2002 .

[3]  D. Purpura,et al.  INTRACELLULAR ACTIVITIES AND EVOKED POTENTIAL CHANGES DURING POLARIZATION OF MOTOR CORTEX. , 1965, Journal of neurophysiology.

[4]  A. T. Sack,et al.  Multimodal transcranial magnetic stimulation: Using concurrent neuroimaging to reveal the neural network dynamics of noninvasive brain stimulation , 2011, Progress in Neurobiology.

[5]  Alvaro Pascual-Leone,et al.  rTMS combined with motor learning training in healthy subjects. , 2006, Restorative neurology and neuroscience.

[6]  Sergio P. Rigonatti,et al.  Enhancement of non-dominant hand motor function by anodal transcranial direct current stimulation , 2006, Neuroscience Letters.

[7]  Sébastien Tremblay,et al.  Altered bidirectional plasticity and reduced implicit motor learning in concussed athletes. , 2012, Cerebral Cortex.

[8]  R. Vink,et al.  Traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease: a review. , 2007, Progress in brain research.

[9]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Interindividual variability of the modulatory effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on cortical excitability , 2000, Experimental Brain Research.

[10]  A. Priori,et al.  Non‐synaptic mechanisms underlie the after‐effects of cathodal transcutaneous direct current stimulation of the human brain , 2005, The Journal of physiology.

[11]  F. Fregni,et al.  A systematic review on reporting and assessment of adverse effects associated with transcranial direct current stimulation. , 2011, The international journal of neuropsychopharmacology.

[12]  D. Hovda,et al.  Pericontusion Axon Sprouting Is Spatially and Temporally Consistent With a Growth-Permissive Environment After Traumatic Brain Injury , 2010, Journal of neuropathology and experimental neurology.

[13]  Sung Ho Jang,et al.  Facilitative effect of high frequency subthreshold repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on complex sequential motor learning in humans , 2004, Neuroscience Letters.

[14]  Mitchel S. Berger,et al.  Unique astrocyte ribbon in adult human brain contains neural stem cells but lacks chain migration , 2004, Nature.

[15]  R. P. Stroemer,et al.  Neocortical neural sprouting, synaptogenesis, and behavioral recovery after neocortical infarction in rats. , 1995, Stroke.

[16]  K A Dunn,et al.  Traumatic brain injury in the United States: A public health perspective. , 1999, The Journal of head trauma rehabilitation.

[17]  D. Choi.  Ionic dependence of glutamate neurotoxicity , 1987, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[18]  Paul B. Fitzgerald,et al.  Investigating the Role of Current Strength in tDCS Modulation of Working Memory Performance in Healthy Controls , 2011, Front. Psychiatry.

[19]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Facilitation of Implicit Motor Learning by Weak Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation of the Primary Motor Cortex in the Human , 2003, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[20]  J. Mehrholz,et al.  Combined Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Robot-Assisted Arm Training in Subacute Stroke Patients , 2011, Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair.

[21]  KM Jacobs,et al.  Reshaping the cortical motor map by unmasking latent intracortical connections , 1991, Science.

[22]  A. Faden.  Neuroprotection and traumatic brain injury: the search continues. , 2001, Archives of neurology.

[23]  S. Lydersen,et al.  Cognitive impairment 3 months after moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: a prospective follow-up study. , 2010, Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation.

[24]  L. Merabet,et al.  The plastic human brain cortex. , 2005, Annual review of neuroscience.

[25]  J. Kleim,et al.  Motor training induces experience-specific patterns of plasticity across motor cortex and spinal cord. , 2006, Journal of applied physiology.

[26]  P. Jezzard,et al.  Neurochemical Effects of Theta Burst Stimulation as Assessed by Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy , 2009, Journal of neurophysiology.

[27]  C. Humpel,et al.  3,4‐Methylenedioxymetamphetamine (ecstasy) induces c‐fos‐like protein and mRNA in rat organotypic dorsal striatal slices , 2000, Synapse.

[28]  M. Mesulam,et al.  A Plasticity‐Based Theory of the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease , 2000, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[29]  L. Bindman,et al.  The action of brief polarizing currents on the cerebral cortex of the rat (1) during current flow and (2) in the production of long‐lasting after‐effects , 1964, The Journal of physiology.

[30]  R. Drucker-Colín,et al.  Antioxidant-Like Effects and Protective Action of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Depression Caused by Olfactory Bulbectomy , 2010, Neurochemical Research.

[31]  Steven D. Freedman,et al.  A Sham-Controlled Trial of a 5-Day Course of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of the Unaffected Hemisphere in Stroke Patients , 2006, Stroke.

[32]  T. Teyler,et al.  Synaptic plasticity and secondary epileptogenesis. , 2001, International review of neurobiology.

[33]  A Büki,et al.  Cytochrome c Release and Caspase Activation in Traumatic Axonal Injury , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[34]  L. Gentry,et al.  Imaging of closed head injury. , 1994, Radiology.

[35]  D. Steindler,et al.  Stem cells and neuropoiesis in the adult human brain , 2002, The Lancet.

[36]  Walter Paulus,et al.  Modulation of cortical excitability by weak direct current stimulation--technical, safety and functional aspects. , 2003, Supplements to Clinical neurophysiology.

[37]  L. Cohen,et al.  Mechanisms of enhancement of human motor cortex excitability induced by interventional paired associative stimulation , 2002, The Journal of physiology.

[38]  D. Graham,et al.  Ultrastructural evidence of axonal shearing as a result of lateral acceleration of the head in non-human primates , 2004, Acta Neuropathologica.

[39]  Niraj S. Desai,et al.  Plasticity in the intrinsic excitability of cortical pyramidal neurons , 1999, Nature Neuroscience.

[40]  Allen W. Brown,et al.  A survey of very-long-term outcomes after traumatic brain injury among members of a population-based incident cohort. , 2011, Journal of neurotrauma.

[41]  T. Jones,et al.  Motor Skill Training, but not Voluntary Exercise, Improves Skilled Reaching After Unilateral Ischemic Lesions of the Sensorimotor Cortex in Rats , 2008, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[42]  Katsunori Ikoma,et al.  Inhibition of the unaffected motor cortex by 1 Hz repetitive transcranical magnetic stimulation enhances motor performance and training effect of the paretic hand in patients with chronic stroke. , 2008, Journal of rehabilitation medicine.

[43]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation , 2000, The Journal of physiology.

[44]  E. Wassermann,et al.  Priming Stimulation Enhances the Depressant Effect of Low-Frequency Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[45]  T. Bushnik,et al.  Medical and Social Issues Related to Posttraumatic Seizures in Persons With Traumatic Brain Injury , 2004, The Journal of head trauma rehabilitation.

[46]  A. Vercesi,et al.  Oxidative stress in Ca2+‐induced membrane permeability transition in brain mitochondria , 2001, Journal of neurochemistry.

[47]  Kristin Clark,et al.  Enhanced Long-Term Synaptic Depression in an Animal Model of Depression , 2007, Biological Psychiatry.

[48]  O W Witte,et al.  Induction of bilateral plasticity in sensory cortical maps by small unilateral cortical infarcts in rats , 2003, The European journal of neuroscience.

[49]  E. Bisiach,et al.  rTMS of the unaffected hemisphere transiently reduces contralesional visuospatial hemineglect , 2001, Neurology.

[50]  Felipe Fregni,et al.  Mood and cognitive effects of transcranial direct current stimulation in post-stroke depression , 2011, Neurocase.

[51]  Antony W. Goodwin,et al.  ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES IN THE MAMMALIAN BRAIN , 2010 .

[52]  I. Módy,et al.  Reducing excessive GABA-mediated tonic inhibition promotes functional recovery after stroke. , 2010, Nature.

[53]  J. Ziebell,et al.  Involvement of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury , 2011, Neurotherapeutics.

[54]  K. Shindo,et al.  Long-term effect of low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the unaffected posterior parietal cortex in patients with unilateral spatial neglect. , 2006, Journal of rehabilitation medicine.

[55]  P. Vos,et al.  Clinical characteristics and pathophysiological mechanisms of focal and diffuse traumatic brain injury , 2010, Journal of cellular and molecular medicine.

[56]  R. Keep,et al.  Mechanisms of brain injury after intracerebral haemorrhage , 2006, The Lancet Neurology.

[57]  R. Post,et al.  Opposite effects of high and low frequency rTMS on regional brain activity in depressed patients , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[58]  T. Jones,et al.  Cortical electrical stimulation combined with rehabilitative training: Enhanced functional recovery and dendritic plasticity following focal cortical ischemia in rats , 2003, Neurological research.

[59]  G. Collingridge.  The induction of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-dependent long-term potentiation† , 2003, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.

[60]  B. Stoica,et al.  Cell death mechanisms and modulation in traumatic brain injury , 2011, Neurotherapeutics.

[61]  E. Marder,et al.  Plasticity in single neuron and circuit computations , 2004, Nature.

[62]  Áine M. Kelly,et al.  The effects of forced exercise on hippocampal plasticity in the rat: A comparison of LTP, spatial- and non-spatial learning , 2007, Behavioural Brain Research.

[63]  Wade G. Regehr,et al.  Short-term synaptic plasticity: a comparison of two synapses , 2004, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[64]  M. Bear,et al.  LTP and LTD An Embarrassment of Riches , 2004, Neuron.

[65]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Pharmacological Modulation of Cortical Excitability Shifts Induced by Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Humans , 2003, The Journal of physiology.

[66]  Sarah H. Lisanby,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the presence of deep brain stimulation implants: Induced electrode currents , 2010, 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology.

[67]  Sergio P. Rigonatti,et al.  Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory , 2005, Experimental Brain Research.

[68]  R. Rosenfeld.  Patients , 2012, Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery.

[69]  W. Paulus,et al.  Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). , 2003, Supplements to Clinical neurophysiology.

[70]  Sergio P. Rigonatti,et al.  Repeated sessions of noninvasive brain DC stimulation is associated with motor function improvement in stroke patients. , 2007, Restorative neurology and neuroscience.

[71]  Walter Paulus,et al.  Consolidation of Human Motor Cortical Neuroplasticity by D-Cycloserine , 2004, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[72]  A. Gershon,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression. , 2003, The American journal of psychiatry.

[73]  R. Nudo.  Neural bases of recovery after brain injury. , 2011, Journal of communication disorders.

[74]  N. Ward.  Neural plasticity and recovery of function. , 2005, Progress in brain research.

[75]  Walter Paulus,et al.  Catecholaminergic consolidation of motor cortical neuroplasticity in humans. , 2004, Cerebral cortex.

[76]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation in neurology , 2003, The Lancet Neurology.

[77]  H. Karbe,et al.  Differential capacity of left and right hemispheric areas for compensation of poststroke aphasia , 1999, Annals of neurology.

[78]  Gary W. Thickbroom,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation and synaptic plasticity: experimental framework and human models , 2007, Experimental Brain Research.

[79]  C. Hölscher.  Synaptic plasticity and learning and memory: LTP and beyond , 1999, Journal of neuroscience research.

[80]  J. Fawcett.  Molecular control of brain plasticity and repair. , 2009, Progress in Brain Research.

[81]  C. Lee,et al.  Mitochondrial dysfunction and calcium perturbation induced by traumatic brain injury. , 1997, Journal of neurotrauma.

[82]  Ichiro Watanabe,et al.  Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation of Contralesional Primary Motor Cortex Improves Hand Function After Stroke , 2005, Stroke.

[83]  J. Serena,et al.  Iron-Related Brain Damage in Patients With Intracerebral Hemorrhage , 2010, Stroke.

[84]  Myoung-Hwan Ko,et al.  Enhancing the Working Memory of Stroke Patients Using tDCS , 2009, American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation.

[85]  A. Lau,et al.  Vulnerability of Central Neurons to Secondary Insults after In Vitro Mechanical Stretch , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[86]  R. Nicoll,et al.  Silent Synapses Speak Up , 1997, Neuron.

[87]  John C. Rothwell,et al.  Plasticity in the Human Motor System , 2010, Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica.

[88]  A. Dunaevsky,et al.  Dendritic spine morphogenesis and plasticity. , 2005, Journal of neurobiology.

[89]  Mark Hallett,et al.  Daily repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) improves mood in depression , 1995, Neuroreport.

[90]  R. Nudo.  Postinfarct Cortical Plasticity and Behavioral Recovery , 2007, Stroke.

[91]  J. Langlois,et al.  Incidence of Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States, 2003 , 2006, The Journal of head trauma rehabilitation.

[92]  M. Nitsche,et al.  GABAergic modulation of DC stimulation‐induced motor cortex excitability shifts in humans , 2004, The European journal of neuroscience.

[93]  L. Cohen,et al.  Efficacy of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation/transcranial direct current stimulation in cognitive neurorehabilitation , 2008, Brain Stimulation.

[94]  Xiao-qiao Zhang,et al.  Effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation on the expression of c-Fos and brain-derived neurotrophic factor of the cerebral cortex in rats with cerebral infarct , 2007, Journal of Huazhong University of Science and Technology.

[95]  B. Albensi,et al.  Traumatic brain injury and its effects on synaptic plasticity , 2003, Brain injury.

[96]  Felipe Fregni,et al.  Bartholow, Sciamanna, Alberti: Pioneers in the Electrical Stimulation of the Exposed Human Cerebral Cortex , 2008, The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

[97]  T. Wieloch,et al.  Mechanisms of neural plasticity following brain injury , 2006, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[98]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Structural plasticity and memory , 2004, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[99]  E. Capaldi,et al.  The organization of behavior. , 1992, Journal of applied behavior analysis.

[100]  A. Wagner,et al.  Biologic and Plastic Effects of Experimental Traumatic Brain Injury Treatment Paradigms and Their Relevance to Clinical Rehabilitation , 2011, PM & R : the journal of injury, function, and rehabilitation.

[101]  P. Schwenkreis,et al.  Influence of 5Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on motor learning , 2009, Neuroscience Letters.

[102]  Randy L. Buckner,et al.  Effects of Left Inferior Prefrontal Stimulation on Episodic Memory Formation: A Two-Stage fMRIrTMS Study , 2004, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[103]  A. Quartarone,et al.  Clinical features of dystonia: a pathophysiological revisitation , 2008, Current opinion in neurology.

[104]  C. Robertson,et al.  Nitric Oxide in Traumatic Brain Injury , 2004, Brain pathology.

[105]  J. Liepert,et al.  Treatment-induced cortical reorganization after stroke in humans. , 2000, Stroke.

[106]  D. Linden.  The Return of the Spike Postsynaptic Action Potentials and the Induction of LTP and LTD , 1999, Neuron.

[107]  M. Hallett,et al.  Depression of motor cortex excitability by low‐frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation , 1997, Neurology.

[108]  M. Hallett,et al.  Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation–Induced Corticomotor Excitability and Associated Motor Skill Acquisition in Chronic Stroke , 2006, Stroke.

[109]  O. Creutzfeldt,et al.  Influence of transcortical d-c currents on cortical neuronal activity. , 1962, Experimental neurology.

[110]  J. Rothwell,et al.  The physiological basis of the effects of intermittent theta burst stimulation of the human motor cortex , 2008, The Journal of physiology.

[111]  G. Clifton,et al.  μ‐Calpain Activation and Calpain‐Mediated Cytoskeletal Proteolysis Following Traumatic Brain Injury , 1996 .

[112]  Victor Vostrikov,et al.  Pathology of layer V pyramidal neurons in the prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia. , 2004, The American journal of psychiatry.

[113]  M. Hallett.  Neuroplasticity and rehabilitation. , 2005, Journal of rehabilitation research and development.

[114]  A. Barker,et al.  NON-INVASIVE MAGNETIC STIMULATION OF HUMAN MOTOR CORTEX , 1985, The Lancet.

[115]  D. Lowenstein,et al.  Selective vulnerability of dentate hilar neurons following traumatic brain injury: a potential mechanistic link between head trauma and disorders of the hippocampus , 1992, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[116]  T. Yamashima,et al.  Sustained calpain activation associated with lysosomal rupture executes necrosis of the postischemic CA1 neurons in primates , 2003, Hippocampus.

[117]  E. Park,et al.  Traumatic brain injury: Can the consequences be stopped? , 2008, Canadian Medical Association Journal.

[118]  M. Nitsche,et al.  External modulation of visual perception in humans , 2001, Neuroreport.

[119]  O. Pascual,et al.  Glia: The many ways to modulate synaptic plasticity , 2010, Neurochemistry International.

[120]  M. Hallet.  Guest Editorial: Neuroplasticity and rehabilitation , 2004 .

[121]  Bogdan Draganski,et al.  Neuroplasticity: Changes in grey matter induced by training , 2004, Nature.

[122]  J. Rafols,et al.  Functional improvement after motor training is correlated with synaptic plasticity in rat thalamus , 2002, Neurological research.

[123]  W. H. Hall,et al.  Rehabilitation of persons with traumatic brain injury. , 1999, NIH consensus statement.

[124]  J. C. Rothwell,et al.  Exploring Theta Burst Stimulation as an intervention to improve motor recovery in chronic stroke , 2007, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[125]  A. Timmermans,et al.  Technology-assisted training of arm-hand skills in stroke: concepts on reacquisition of motor control and therapist guidelines for rehabilitation technology design , 2009, Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation.

[126]  S. Rossi,et al.  Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research , 2009, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[127]  B. Connors,et al.  Mechanisms of epileptogenesis in cortical structures , 1984, Annals of neurology.

[128]  L. Satin,et al.  Enhancement of AMPA-Mediated Current after Traumatic Injury in Cortical Neurons , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[129]  C. Werner,et al.  Pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. , 2007, British journal of anaesthesia.

[130]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Sustained excitability elevations induced by transcranial DC motor cortex stimulation in humans , 2001, Neurology.

[131]  D. Brough,et al.  Regulation of interleukin-1 in acute brain injury. , 2011, Trends in pharmacological sciences.

[132]  G. Ellis‐Davies,et al.  Structural basis of long-term potentiation in single dendritic spines , 2004, Nature.

[133]  Y. Stern,et al.  Facilitation of performance in a working memory task with rTMS stimulation of the precuneus: Frequency- and time-dependent effects , 2007, Brain Research.

[134]  J. Rothwell,et al.  The after-effect of human theta burst stimulation is NMDA receptor dependent , 2007, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[135]  Nadia Bolognini,et al.  Using non-invasive brain stimulation to augment motor training-induced plasticity , 2009, Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation.

[136]  Sergio P. Rigonatti,et al.  Homeostatic effects of plasma valproate levels on corticospinal excitability changes induced by 1Hz rTMS in patients with juvenile myoclonic epilepsy , 2006, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[137]  M. Hallett.  Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Primer , 2007, Neuron.

[138]  J. Rothwell,et al.  Is there a future for therapeutic use of transcranial magnetic stimulation? , 2007, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[139]  P. Stanton,et al.  LTD, LTP, and the sliding threshold for long‐term synaptic plasticity , 1996, Hippocampus.

[140]  J. Rothwell,et al.  Effects on the right motor hand‐area excitability produced by low‐frequency rTMS over human contralateral homologous cortex , 2003, The Journal of physiology.

[141]  E. Syková,et al.  Astroglial networks scale synaptic activity and plasticity , 2011, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[142]  Giorgio Fuggetta,et al.  Long-lasting effects of high frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in major depressed patients , 2007, Psychiatry Research.

[143]  L. Cohen,et al.  Improvement of Motor Function with Noninvasive Cortical Stimulation in a Patient with Chronic Stroke , 2005, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[144]  E. Wassermann.  Risk and safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: report and suggested guidelines from the International Workshop on the Safety of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, June 5-7, 1996. , 1998, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[145]  Markus Zahn,et al.  Transcranial direct current stimulation: A computer-based human model study , 2007, NeuroImage.

[146]  Paul Bach-y-Rita,et al.  Theoretical basis for brain plasticity after a TBI , 2003, Brain injury.

[147]  Markus Zahn,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation and stroke: A computer-based human model study , 2006, NeuroImage.

[148]  J. Kleim,et al.  Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. , 2008, Journal of speech, language, and hearing research : JSLHR.

[149]  P. A. Tonali,et al.  Modulating cortical excitability in acute stroke: A repetitive TMS study , 2008, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[150]  J. Krakauer,et al.  Consensus: "Can tDCS and TMS enhance motor learning and memory formation?" , 2008, Brain stimulation.

[151]  H. Duffau.  Brain plasticity: From pathophysiological mechanisms to therapeutic applications , 2006, Journal of Clinical Neuroscience.

[152]  R. Keep,et al.  Brain Injury After Intracerebral Hemorrhage: The Role of Thrombin and Iron , 2007, Stroke.

[153]  R. Kuner,et al.  Central mechanisms of pathological pain , 2010, Nature Medicine.

[154]  P. Matthews,et al.  Polarity-Sensitive Modulation of Cortical Neurotransmitters by Transcranial Stimulation , 2009, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[155]  Allen W. Brown,et al.  Natural history of headache after traumatic brain injury. , 2011, Journal of neurotrauma.

[156]  P. Dash,et al.  Reversal of Brain Injury-Induced Prefrontal Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase Expression and Working Memory Deficits by D1 Receptor Antagonism , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[157]  C M Epstein,et al.  Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation activates specific regions in rat brain. , 1998, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[158]  D. Katz,et al.  Update of Neuropathology and Neurological Recovery After Traumatic Brain Injury , 2005, The Journal of head trauma rehabilitation.

[159]  Alvaro Pascual-Leone,et al.  Safety of 1Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in patients with titanium skull plates , 2009, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[160]  D. Hovda,et al.  Voluntary exercise following traumatic brain injury: brain-derived neurotrophic factor upregulation and recovery of function , 2004, Neuroscience.

[161]  Susan T Herman,et al.  Epilepsy after brain insult: Targeting epileptogenesis , 2002, Neurology.

[162]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Excitability changes induced in the human primary visual cortex by transcranial direct current stimulation: direct electrophysiological evidence. , 2004, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[163]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Physiological Basis of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation , 2011, The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

[164]  Uri Eden,et al.  Biophysical foundations underlying TMS: Setting the stage for an effective use of neurostimulation in the cognitive neurosciences , 2009, Cortex.

[165]  Heidi M. Schambra,et al.  Modulation of excitability of human motor cortex (M1) by 1 Hz transcranial magnetic stimulation of the contralateral M1 , 2003, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[166]  Jon E. Grant,et al.  Impulse Control Disorders: Updated Review of Clinical Characteristics and Pharmacological Management , 2011, Front. Psychiatry.

[167]  Gwyn Lewis,et al.  Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation-associated neurobehavioral gains during coma recovery , 2009, Brain Stimulation.

[168]  Nadia Bolognini,et al.  Neurophysiological and Behavioral Effects of tDCS Combined With Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy in Poststroke Patients , 2011, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[169]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Subthreshold low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation selectively decreases facilitation in the motor cortex , 2002, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[170]  J. Donoghue,et al.  Learning-induced LTP in neocortex. , 2000, Science.

[171]  T. Bliss,et al.  Long‐lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate area of the anaesthetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path , 1973, The Journal of physiology.

[172]  S. Goldring,et al.  Experimentally derived correlates between ECG and steady cortical potential. , 1951, Journal of neurophysiology.

[173]  J. Adams,et al.  Selective vulnerability of hippocampal neurons in acceleration-induced experimental head injury. , 1991, Journal of neurotrauma.

[174]  Gottfried Schlaug,et al.  Contralateral and ipsilateral motor effects after transcranial direct current stimulation , 2006, Neuroreport.

[175]  M. Scaff,et al.  Cognitive deficits in patients with mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. , 2010, Arquivos de neuro-psiquiatria.

[176]  B. Kampa,et al.  Synaptic integration in dendritic trees. , 2005, Journal of neurobiology.

[177]  M. Hallett,et al.  Responses to rapid-rate transcranial magnetic stimulation of the human motor cortex. , 1994, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[178]  S. J. Martin,et al.  Synaptic plasticity and memory: an evaluation of the hypothesis. , 2000, Annual review of neuroscience.

[179]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Anticonvulsant Effects of Transcranial Direct‐current Stimulation (tDCS) in the Rat Cortical Ramp Model of Focal Epilepsy , 2006, Epilepsia.

[180]  K P George,et al.  Cortical language activation in stroke patients recovering from aphasia with functional MRI. , 1999, Stroke.

[181]  Alvaro Pascual-Leone,et al.  Safety and tolerability of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with epilepsy: a review of the literature , 2007, Epilepsy & Behavior.

[182]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Dysfunctional long-term potentiation-like plasticity in schizophrenia revealed by transcranial direct current stimulation , 2011, Behavioural Brain Research.

[183]  D. Manahan‐Vaughan,et al.  Long-Term Depression: A Cellular Basis for Learning? , 2001, Reviews in the neurosciences.

[184]  D. Liebetanz,et al.  Modulating parameters of excitability during and after transcranial direct current stimulation of the human motor cortex , 2005, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[185]  Richard J Castriotta,et al.  Sleep Disorders in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury , 2011, CNS Drugs.

[186]  A. Keller,et al.  Mechanisms of LTP induction in rat motor cortex in vitro. , 1995, Cerebral cortex.

[187]  G. Lynch,et al.  Heterosynaptic depression: a postsynaptic correlate of long-term potentiation , 1977, Nature.

[188]  B. Burns.  The production of after‐bursts in isolated unanaesthetized cerebral cortex , 1954, Journal of Physiology.

[189]  G. Clifton,et al.  mu-calpain activation and calpain-mediated cytoskeletal proteolysis following traumatic brain injury. , 1996, Journal of Neurochemistry.

[190]  N. Toschi,et al.  Long-Term Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Increases the Expression of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Cholecystokinin mRNA, but not Neuropeptide Tyrosine mRNA in Specific Areas of Rat Brain , 2000, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[191]  D. Nicholls.  A role for the mitochondrion in the protection of cells against calcium overload? , 1985, Progress in brain research.

[192]  T. Bliss,et al.  Long-term potentiation and long-term depression: a clinical perspective , 2011, Clinics.

[193]  T. Elbert,et al.  Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation , 1995, Nature.

[194]  Joseph R. Madsen,et al.  Minimal heating of titanium skull plates during 1Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation , 2007, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[195]  G. Aston-Jones,et al.  Noninvasive techniques for probing neurocircuitry and treating illness: vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) , 2010, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[196]  P. Milner,et al.  Preconceptions and prerequisites: Understanding the function of synaptic plasticity will also depend on a better systems-level understanding of the multiple types of memory , 1997, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[197]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Treatment of depression with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): A Review , 2009, Experimental Neurology.

[198]  Abhishek Datta,et al.  Transcranial direct current stimulation in patients with skull defects and skull plates: High-resolution computational FEM study of factors altering cortical current flow , 2010, NeuroImage.

[199]  Cláudio T. Silva,et al.  Effects of 10 Hz rTMS on the Neural Efficiency of Working Memory , 2010, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[200]  L. Cohen,et al.  Transcranial direct current stimulation: State of the art 2008 , 2008, Brain Stimulation.

[201]  F. Kirkham,et al.  Cerebrovascular pathophysiology in pediatric traumatic brain injury. , 2009, The Journal of trauma.

[202]  G. Thickbroom,et al.  Plasticity in neurological disorders and challenges for noninvasive brain stimulation (NBS) , 2009, Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation.

[203]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Diminishing Risk-Taking Behavior by Modulating Activity in the Prefrontal Cortex: A Direct Current Stimulation Study , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[204]  H. Hinterhuber,et al.  Chronic repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation enhances c-fos in the parietal cortex and hippocampus. , 2000, Brain research. Molecular brain research.

[205]  M. Wald,et al.  Surveillance for traumatic brain injury-related deaths--United States, 1997-2007. , 2011, Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Surveillance summaries.

[206]  J. Povlishock,et al.  A mechanistic analysis of nondisruptive axonal injury: a review. , 1997, Journal of neurotrauma.

[207]  Li Yue,et al.  The effects of chronic repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid in rat brain , 2009, Brain Research.

[208]  D. Lowenstein,et al.  Posttraumatic Epilepsy: A Major Problem in Desperate Need of Major Advances , 2006, Epilepsy currents.

[209]  M. Nitsche,et al.  Pharmacological approach to the mechanisms of transcranial DC-stimulation-induced after-effects of human motor cortex excitability. , 2002, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[210]  S. Nelson,et al.  Homeostatic plasticity in the developing nervous system , 2004, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[211]  J. Szmydynger-Chodobska,et al.  Emerging concepts in the pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. , 2010, The Psychiatric clinics of North America.

[212]  J. Krakauer,et al.  Consensus: Can transcranial direct current stimulation and transcranial magnetic stimulation enhance motor learning and memory formation? , 2008, Brain Stimulation.