Cognitive models of geographical space

This paper reviews research in geographical cognition that provides part of the theoretical foundation of geographical information science. Freestanding research streams in cognitive science, behavioural geography, and cartography converged in the last decade or so with work on theoretical foundations for geographical information systems to produce a coherent research community that advances geographical information science, geographical information systems, and the contributing fields and disciplines. Then, we review three high-priority research areas that are the topics for research initiatives within the NCGIA's Project Varenius. Other topics consider but ranked less important at this time are also reviewed.

[1]  R. D. Calkins.  Orientation of Maps , 1909 .

[2]  C. C. Trowbridge.  ON FUNDAMENTAL METHODS OF ORIENTATION AND "IMAGINARY MAPS". , 1913, Science.

[3]  John K. Wright.  Terrae Incognitae: The Place of the Imagination in Geography , 1947 .

[4]  E. Tolman.  Cognitive maps in rats and men. , 1948, Psychological review.

[5]  Arthur H. Robinson,et al.  The Look of Maps , 1952 .

[6]  G. A. Miller.  THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW THE MAGICAL NUMBER SEVEN, PLUS OR MINUS TWO: SOME LIMITS ON OUR CAPACITY FOR PROCESSING INFORMATION 1 , 1956 .

[7]  D. Broadbent.  Perception and communication , 1958 .

[8]  Kevin Lynch,et al.  The Image of the City , 1960 .

[9]  D. Lowenthal.  GEOGRAPHY, EXPERIENCE, AND IMAGINATION: TOWARDS A GEOGRAPHICAL EPISTEMOLOGY1 , 1961 .

[10]  J. Wolpert.  THE DECISION PROCESS IN SPATIAL CONTEXT1 , 1964 .

[11]  F. J. Langdon,et al.  The Child's Conception of Space , 1967 .

[12]  A. Koláčný.  Cartographic Information—a Fundamental Concept and Term in Modern Cartography , 1969 .

[13]  G. Rushton.  ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL BEHAVIOR BY REVEALED SPACE PREFERENCE , 1969 .

[14]  T. Gladwin.  East Is a Big Bird , 1970 .

[15]  J. Flannery.  THE RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOME COMMON GRADUATED POINT SYMBOLS IN THE PRESENTATION OF QUANTITATIVE DATA , 1971 .

[16]  R. Golledge,et al.  Behavioral problems in geography : a symposium , 1971 .

[17]  F. E. Horton,et al.  Effects of Urban Spatial Structure on Individual Behavior , 1971 .

[18]  A. H. Esser.  Behavior and Environment , 1971 .

[19]  D. Stea,et al.  Studies of Geographic Learning. , 1971 .

[20]  D. Sheppard,et al.  A Survey of Drivers' Opinions on Maps for Route Finding , 1971 .

[21]  D. Lewis,et al.  We, the navigators , 1973 .

[22]  N. Thrower,et al.  The History of Mapping. (Book Reviews: Maps and Man. An Examination of Cartography in Relation to Culture and Civilization) , 1972 .

[23]  J. Stone.  Maps and Man. An Examination of Cartography in Relation to Culture and Civilization. Norman J. W. Thrower. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1972. viii, 184 pp., illus. Cloth, $5.95; paper, $2.95 , 1972 .

[24]  B. D. Dent.  VISUAL ORGANIZATION AND THEMATIC MAP COMMUNICATION , 1972 .

[25]  E. Rosch.  ON THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PERCEPTUAL AND SEMANTIC CATEGORIES1 , 1973 .

[26]  R. Downs,et al.  Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior , 2017 .

[27]  Prostitution In Nevada,et al.  ANNALS of the Association of American Geographers , 1974 .

[28]  J. Wohlwill.  Image and Environment. Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior. Roger M. Downs and David Stea, Eds. Aldine, Chicago, 1973. xxiii, 440 pp., illus. $15 , 1974 .

[29]  A. Siegel,et al.  The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments. , 1975, Advances in child development and behavior.

[30]  S. Milgram.  Psychological maps of Paris , 1976 .

[31]  Carleton W. Cox.  Anchor Effects and the Estimation of Graduated Circles and Squares , 1976 .

[32]  A. Koláčcný.  Cartographic Information – A Fundamental Concept And Term In Modern Cartography , 1977 .

[33]  L. Kozlowski,et al.  Sense of direction, spatial orientation, and cognitive maps. , 1977 .

[34]  Benjamin Kuipers,et al.  Modeling Spatial Knowledge , 1978, IJCAI.

[35]  R. Lloyd,et al.  VISUAL AND STATISTICAL COMPARISON OF CHOROPLETH MAPS , 1977 .

[36]  L. Nadel,et al.  The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map , 1978 .

[37]  R. Golledge,et al.  Environmental Knowing: Theories, Research and Methods , 1978 .

[38]  Eleanor Rosch,et al.  Principles of Categorization , 1978 .

[39]  Albert C. Stevens,et al.  Distortions in judged spatial relations , 1978, Cognitive Psychology.

[40]  R. Byrne,et al.  Memory for Urban Geography , 1979 .

[41]  R. Downs.  CRITICAL APPRAISAL OR DETERMINED PHILOSOPHICAL SKEPTICISM , 1979 .

[42]  R. Lloyd,et al.  Orderly Maps and Map Communication , 1979 .

[43]  T. Saarinen.  COMMENTARY-CRITIQUE OF BUNTING-GUELKE PAPER , 1979 .

[44]  R. Wilton.  Knowledge of Spatial Relations: The Specification of the Information Used in Making Inferences , 1979, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology.

[45]  T. Bunting,et al.  BEHAVIORAL AND PERCEPTION GEOGRAPHY: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL* , 1979 .

[46]  W. Chase,et al.  Cognitive Skill: Implications for Spatial Skill in Large-Scale Environments. , 1979 .

[47]  G. Rushton.  ON BEHAVIORAL AND PERCEPTION GEOGRAPHY , 1979 .

[48]  Edward K. Sadalla,et al.  An Information Storage Model for Distance Cognition , 1980 .

[49]  G W Evans,et al.  Cognitive mapping: knowledge of real-world distance and location information. , 1980, Journal of experimental psychology. Human learning and memory.

[50]  E. Sadalla,et al.  Reference points in spatial cognition. , 1980, Journal of experimental psychology. Human learning and memory.

[51]  Christopher Riesbeck,et al.  "You Can't Miss it!": Judging the Clarity of Directions , 1980, Cogn. Sci..

[52]  E. Sadalla,et al.  The Perception of Traversed Distance , 1980 .

[53]  P. Thorndyke.  Distance estimation from cognitive maps , 1981, Cognitive Psychology.

[54]  R. Palm.  PUBLIC RESPONSE TO EARTHQUAKE HAZARD INFORMATION* , 1981, Annals of the Association of American Geographers.

[55]  P. Gilmartin.  INFLUENCES OF MAP CONTEXT ON CIRCLE PERCEPTION , 1981 .

[56]  R. Maki.  Categorization and distance effects with spatial linear orders. , 1981 .

[57]  B. Tversky.  Distortions in memory for maps , 1981, Cognitive Psychology.

[58]  Michael E. Lesk,et al.  Route Finding in Street Maps by Computers and People , 1982, AAAI.

[59]  N. Newcombe,et al.  Barrier effects in the cognitive maps of children and adults. , 1982, Journal of experimental child psychology.

[60]  S. Kosslyn.  Image and mind , 1982 .

[61]  David Marr,et al.  VISION A Computational Investigation into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information , 2009 .

[62]  I Moar,et al.  Memory for Routes , 1982, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. A, Human experimental psychology.

[63]  Wesley A. Mah,et al.  Cognitive reference points in judgments of symbolic magnitude , 1982, Cognitive Psychology.

[64]  R. Lloyd.  A Look at Images , 1982 .

[65]  B. Kuipers.  The "Map in the Head" Metaphor , 1982 .

[66]  Barbara Hayes-Roth,et al.  Differences in spatial knowledge acquired from maps and navigation , 1982, Cognitive Psychology.

[67]  Benjamin Kuipers,et al.  The Cognitive Map: Could It Have Been Any Other Way? , 1983 .

[68]  Ernest Davis,et al.  The Mercator Representation of Spatial Knowledge , 1983, IJCAI.

[69]  Ernest Davis,et al.  Planning routes through uncertain territory , 1983 .

[70]  G. Bower,et al.  Inconsistency in spatial knowledge , 1983, Memory & cognition.

[71]  W. Chase.  Spatial Representations of Taxi Drivers , 1983 .

[72]  Leonard Talmy,et al.  How Language Structures Space , 1983 .

[73]  James F. Allen.  Maintaining knowledge about temporal intervals , 1983, CACM.

[74]  Jeffrey C. Patton,et al.  Comparing the Sexes on Spatial Abilities: Map-Use Skills , 1984 .

[75]  John T. Coshall.  Urban Consumers' Cognitions of Distance , 1985 .

[76]  D. M. Mark.  Finding Simple Routes: 'Ease of Description' as an Objective Function in Automated Route Selection , 1985, CAIA.

[77]  Lynn A. Streeter,et al.  How to Tell People Where to Go: Comparing Navigational Aids , 1985, Int. J. Man Mach. Stud..

[78]  G. Allen,et al.  Effects of the cognitive organization of route knowledge on judgments of macrospatial distance , 1985, Memory & cognition.

[79]  J. Jonides,et al.  Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps , 1985, Memory & cognition.

[80]  Jon A. Kimerling.  The Comparison of Equal-Value Gray Scales , 1985 .

[81]  T. McNamara.  Mental representations of spatial relations , 1986, Cognitive Psychology.

[82]  H. Couclelis.  ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN GEOGRAPHY: CONJECTURES ON THE SHAPE OF THINGS TO COME , 1986 .

[83]  L A Streeter,et al.  A Profile of Drivers' Map-Reading Abilities , 1986, Human factors.

[84]  D. Mark,et al.  Effective provision of navigation assistance for drivers: A cognitive science approach , 1986 .

[85]  Thomas Rist,et al.  Coping with the Intrinsic and Deictic Uses of Spatial Prepositions , 1986, AIMSA.

[86]  Ernest Davis,et al.  Representing and Acquiring Geographic Knowledge , 1986 .

[87]  D. Mark,et al.  COMPUTERIZED NAVIGATION ASSISTANCE FOR DRIVERS , 1987 .

[88]  E. Hilgard.  Psychology in America: A Historical Survey , 1987 .

[89]  S. Greenspan,et al.  Accessibility and situation models in narrative comprehension , 1987 .

[90]  N. Gale,et al.  Exploring the anchor-point hypothesis of spatial cognition , 1987 .

[91]  Ronald F. Abler,et al.  The National Science Foundation National Center for Geographic Information and Analysis , 1987, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[92]  Terence R. Smith,et al.  KBGIS-II A knowledge-based geographical information system , 1986, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[93]  David M. Mark,et al.  Automated Provision of Navigation Assistance to Drivers , 1987 .

[94]  Clark C. Presson,et al.  Points of reference in spatial cognition: Stalking the elusive landmark* , 1988 .

[95]  Benjamin Kuipers,et al.  Navigation and Mapping in Large Scale Space , 1988, AI Mag..

[96]  T. Odlin.  Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind , 1988 .

[97]  Donna J. Peuquet,et al.  Representations of Geographic Space: Toward a Conceptual Synthesis , 1988 .

[98]  Erland Jungert,et al.  Extended Symbolic Projections as a Knowledge Structure for Spatial Reasoning , 1988, Pattern Recognition.

[99]  Wai-Kiang Yeap.  Towards a Computational Theory of Cognitive Maps , 1988, Artif. Intell..

[100]  G. Lakoff,et al.  Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind , 1988 .

[101]  Max J. Egenhofer,et al.  A Formal Definition of Binary Topological Relationships , 1989, FODO.

[102]  R. Klatzky,et al.  Navigator: A psychologically based model of environmental learning through navigation , 1989 .

[103]  Michael F. Goodchild,et al.  NATIONAL CENTER FOR GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION AND ANALYSIS , 1998 .

[104]  G. Lakoff.  Women, fire, and dangerous things : what categories reveal about the mind , 1989 .

[105]  Amitabha Mukerjee,et al.  A Qualitative Model for Space , 1990, AAAI.

[106]  David M. Mark,et al.  Cognitive and Linguistic Aspects of Geographic Space: New Perspectives on Geographic Information Research , 1991 .

[107]  Stephen C. Hirtle,et al.  Acquisition of spatial knowledge for routes , 1991 .

[108]  Christian Freksa,et al.  Qualitative spatial reasoning , 1990, Forschungsberichte, TU Munich.

[109]  Andrew U. Frank,et al.  Qualitative Spatial Reasoning with Cardinal Directions , 1991, ÖGAI.

[110]  Travé-Massuyès.  Conceptual Neighborhood and its role in temporal and spatial reasoning , 1991 .

[111]  S. Aitken.  Person-environment theories in contemporary perceptual and behavioural geography I: personality, attitudinal and spatial choice theories , 1991 .

[112]  Barbara P. Buttenfield,et al.  Expert Systems in Cartographic Design , 1991 .

[113]  C. Grant Head.  Mapping as Language or Semiotic System: Review and Comment , 1991 .

[114]  Robin G. Fegeas,et al.  An Overview of FIPS 173, The Spatial Data Transfer Standard , 1992 .

[115]  Michael F. Goodchild,et al.  Geographical information science , 1992, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[116]  Christian Freksa,et al.  Temporal Reasoning Based on Semi-Intervals , 1992, Artif. Intell..

[117]  Andrew U. Frank,et al.  Theories and Methods of Spatio-Temporal Reasoning in Geographic Space , 1992, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[118]  Barbara Tversky,et al.  Distortions in cognitive maps , 1992 .

[119]  Alan M. MacEachren,et al.  Animation and the Role of Map Design in Scientific Visualization , 1992 .

[120]  S. Aitken.  Person-environment theories in contemporary perceptual and behavioural geography II: the influence of ecological, environmental learning, societal/structural, transactional and transformational theories , 1992 .

[121]  B. Tversky,et al.  Spatial mental models derived from survey and route descriptions , 1992 .

[122]  Christian Freksa,et al.  On the utilization of spatial structures for cognitively plausible and efficient reasoning , 1992, [Proceedings] 1992 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics.

[123]  David M. Mark,et al.  Toward a Theoretical Framework for Geographic Entity Types , 1993, COSIT.

[124]  Terry A. Slocum,et al.  Knowledge Acquisition from Choropleth Maps , 1993 .

[125]  T. Gärling,et al.  Behavior and environment : psychological and geographical approaches , 1993 .

[126]  M. Armstrong.  On Automated Geography , 1993 .

[127]  Barbara Tversky,et al.  Cognitive Maps, Cognitive Collages, and Spatial Mental Models , 1993, COSIT.

[128]  M. F. Schober.  Spatial perspective-taking in conversation , 1993, Cognition.

[129]  Christoph Schlieder,et al.  Representing Visible Locations for Qualitative Navigation , 1993 .

[130]  Daniel R. Montello,et al.  Scale and Multiple Psychologies of Space , 1993, COSIT.

[131]  Amy J. Ruggles,et al.  Integrating route knowledge in an unfamiliar neighborhood: Along and across route experiments , 1993 .

[132]  R. Klatzky,et al.  Nonvisual navigation by blind and sighted: assessment of path integration ability. , 1993, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[133]  Andrew U. Frank,et al.  Spatial Information Theory A Theoretical Basis for GIS , 1993, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[134]  B. Landau,et al.  “What” and “where” in spatial language and spatial cognition , 1993 .

[135]  Elisabeth S. Nelson.  Colour Detection on Bivariate Choropleth Maps: The Visual Search Process , 1994 .

[136]  Daniel Hernández,et al.  Qualitative Representation of Spatial Knowledge , 1994, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[137]  David M. Mark,et al.  CALIBRATING THE MEANINGS OF SPATIAL PREDICATES FROM NATURAL LANGUAGE: LINE-REGION RELATIONS* , 1994 .

[138]  Robert Lloyd,et al.  Learning Spatial Prototypes , 1994 .

[139]  Gérard Ligozat.  Towards a general characterization of conceptual neighborhoods in temporal and spatial reasoning , 1994 .

[140]  David M. Mark,et al.  Naive Geography , 1995, COSIT.

[141]  M. May,et al.  Navigating in a Virtual Environment With Map-Acquired Knowledge: Encoding and Alignment Effects , 1995 .

[142]  Boi Faltings,et al.  Qualitative Spatial Reasoning Using Algebraic Topology , 1995, COSIT.

[143]  M. Egenhofer,et al.  Topology of Prototypical Spatial Relations Between Lines and Regions in English and Spanish 1 , 1995 .

[144]  Alan M. MacEachren,et al.  How Maps Work - Representation, Visualization, and Design , 1995 .

[145]  Michael P. Peterson,et al.  Interactive and Animated Cartography , 1995 .

[146]  Max J. Egenhofer,et al.  Advances in Spatial Databases , 1997, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[147]  E. Hutchins.  Cognition in the wild , 1995 .

[148]  David M. Mark,et al.  Evaluating and Refining Computational Models of Spatial Relations Through Cross-Linguistic Human-Subjects Testing , 1995, COSIT.

[149]  A Berthoz,et al.  Spatial memory of body linear displacement: what is being stored? , 1995, Science.

[150]  N. Hari Narayanan,et al.  Diagrammatic Reasoning: Cognitive and Computational Perspectives , 1995 .

[151]  G. Carbone,et al.  Comparing Human and Neural Network Learning of Climate Categories , 1995 .

[152]  David M. Mark,et al.  Modelling Conceptual Neighbourhoods of Toplogical Line-Region Relations , 1995, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[153]  S. Levinson.  Frames of reference and Molyneux's question: Cross-linguistic evidence , 1996 .

[154]  R. Golledge,et al.  Spatial Behavior: A Geographic Perspective , 1996 .

[155]  R. Kitchin,et al.  lncreasing the integrity of cognitive mapping research: appraising conceptual schemata of environment-behaviour interaction , 1996 .

[156]  J. Portugali.  The construction of cognitive maps , 1996 .

[157]  B. Tversky,et al.  Perspective in Spatial Descriptions , 1996 .

[158]  Robert Lloyd,et al.  Spatial Cognition: Geographic Environments , 1997 .

[159]  Cynthia A. Brewer,et al.  Mapping Mortality: Evaluating Color Schemes for Choropleth Maps , 1997 .

[160]  Daniel R. Montello,et al.  The Perception and Cognition of Environmental Distance: Direct Sources of Information , 1997, COSIT.

[161]  Karen K. Kemp,et al.  Varenius—NCGIA's Project to Advance Geographic Information Science: 1997 Annual Report , 1997 .

[162]  Anthony G. Cohn,et al.  Qualitative Spatial Representation and Reasoning Techniques , 1997, KI.

[163]  Bettina Berendt,et al.  Feature Accumulation and Route Structuring in Distance Estimations - An Interdisciplinary Approach , 1997, COSIT.

[164]  Christian Freksa,et al.  Cognitive Requirements on Making and Interpreting Maps , 1997, COSIT.

[165]  T. McNamara,et al.  Symmetry and Asymmetry of Human Spatial Memory , 1997, Cognitive Psychology.

[166]  Geoffrey Edwards,et al.  Geocognostics - A New Framework for Spatial Information Theory , 1997, COSIT.

[167]  Judy M. Olson,et al.  An Evaluation of Color Selections to Accommodate Map Users with Color-Vision Impairments , 1997 .

[168]  M. Denis.  The description of routes : A cognitive approach to the production of spatial discourse , 1997 .

[169]  Andrew U. Frank,et al.  Formalization of Families of Categorical Coverages , 1997, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[170]  Nancy Franklin,et al.  Long-Term Spatial Representations From Pictorial and Textual Input , 1997, COSIT.

[171]  Bettina Berendt,et al.  Spatial Representation with Aspect Maps , 1998, Spatial Cognition.

[172]  Barry Smith,et al.  Ontology and Geographic Kinds , 1998 .

[173]  Heinrich H. Bülthoff,et al.  Behavioral Experiments in Spatial Cognition Using Virtual Reality , 1998, Spatial Cognition.

[174]  David M. Mark,et al.  Natural-Language Spatial Relations Between Linear and Areal Objects: The Topology and Metric of English-Language Terms , 1998, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[175]  C. Freksa,et al.  Spatial Cognition, An Interdisciplinary Approach to Representing and Processing Spatial Knowledge , 1998 .

[176]  Paul U. Lee,et al.  How Space Structures Language , 1998, Spatial Cognition.

[177]  M. Denis,et al.  Spatial discourse and navigation: an analysis of route directions in the city of Venice , 1999 .

[178]  Christian Freksa,et al.  DIMENSIONS OF QUALITATIVE SPATIAL REASONING , 1999 .

[179]  C. Freksa,et al.  Enhancing Spatial Reasoning by the Concept of Motion , 2000 .

[180]  R. Kitchin,et al.  Cognitive mapping , 2018, Cognitive Mapping.

[181]  Christian Freksa,et al.  On the Relations between Spatial Concepts and Geographic Objects , 2020 .